英语写作教程

BFT Lecture 1 Content Lecture 1 Paragraph structure Lecture 2 Writing an opening paragraph Lecture 3 Developing an essay by examples / Illustration Lecture 4 Developing an essay by contrast and comparison Lecture 5 Developing an essay by division and classification Lecture 6 Developing an essay by cause and effect Lecture 7 Developing an essay by problems and cause Lecture 8 Description Lecture 9 Writing narration Lecture 10 Writing argumentation Lecture 1 Paragraph structure I. Paragraph structure -------- topic sentence (subject +controlling idea) 1. paragraph ------ -------- supporting sentences -------- concluding sentences Topic sentence - States the central idea of the paragraph. Subject (话题)- events or people Controlling idea（主导思想）- a word/a group of word which express the chief point of the paragraph. e.g. Higher education is very expensive today. Subject controlling idea Poor topic sentence: Drugs are dangerous. Improved: Aspirin can have several harmful side effects. Activity 1: Study the following topic sentences. Underline the topic and circle the controlling idea in each one. 1.​  Receiving an F on my report card was a humiliating experience. 2.​  When I was a child, my grandfather’s backyard was a magical place. 3.​  One reason I admire Nelson Mandela is that he never gave up. 4.​  The first step in learning how to do word processing is the hardest. 5.​  The greatest difference in education between the two countries is the number of subjects students must take. Activity 2: Study the following pairs of topic sentences. Circle the number of the better topic sentence in each pair. 1.​ New Orleans is an interesting place to visit. 2.​ The French Quarter in New Orleans has a quaint, European charm. 3.​ Walking is good for your heart. 4.​ Exercise is good for you. 5.​ Computers are more important now than ever before. 6.​ Computers make revising an essay easy. 7.​ My parents have taught me to be persistent. 8.​ My parents have had a great influence on me. Supporting sentences –explains or develops the topic sentence. The supporting part can be narratives, details, facts, examples, explanation, or statistics. All of the support relates to the main idea stated in the topic sentence and shows why the topic sentence is true. Example：Parents can help their children be successful in school by encouraging them. Children usually enjoy playing games instead of studying their boring lessons, so parents have to take the responsibility to monitor their studying and to remind them to do their homework at home after school. Parents should also encourage their children to study by buying story books with pictures, or they can buy text books or tapes that help children learn to spell or read. The best way to encourage children to study efficiently is to reward them when they get an “A”. As a child, I experienced this. My parents gave me a gift if I had studied well, and then I was very excited. So, if parents really want their children to succeed in school, they need to pay attention to their children’s studies and encourage them. Topic sentence: Parents can help their children be successful in school by encouraging them. Support: 1.​ Parents can encourage children by reminding them to do their homework. 2.​ Parents can encourage children by buying them books and tapes to help them learn. 3.​ Parents can encourage children by rewarding them. Activity 3: Following are some topic sentences. Write three possible sentences of support that could be included in paragraph. 1. Topic Sentence: Parents can help their children succeed in school by offering financial support. Support: Support: Support: 2. Topic Sentence: Using a cell phone while driving is dangerous. Support: Support: Support: 3. Topic Sentence: Watching TV is a good way to learn spoken English. Support: Support: Support: Concluding sentences - the final section, summarize the connections between the information discussed in supporting sentences. Not every paragraph has concluding sentences. Often, the concluding sentences close the paragraph by returning to the main idea of the paragraph. They do this by repeating a key word or phrase from the topic sentence. In the above example: Topic Sentence: Parents can help their children be successful in school by encouraging them. Concluding Sentence: So, if parents really want their children to succeed in school, they need to pay attention to their children’s studies and encourage them. Sometimes in the concluding sentences, the writer does not use the exact key words from the topic sentence but rephrases them, using other words that mean the same thing. This gives some variety to the paragraph. Concluding Sentence: Parents who want their children to do their best in school must support and pay attention to them. II. Topic Sentence Places of topic sentence in a paragraph 1) In the beginning People learn in different ways. Some people learn best by writing out the information to be learned. Other people need to hear the information and learn best by reciting or saying the information aloud. Still other people learn through a combination of first writing the information and then reciting. 2) In the middle Californians and New Englanders are both American. They speak the same language and abide by the same federal laws. But they are very different in their ways of life. Mobility – both physical and psychological – has made a great impression on the culture of Californians; lack of mobility is the mark of the customs and morality of New Englanders. 3) In the end School children used to know the story of how Abraham Lincoln walked five miles to return a penny he’d overcharged a customer. It’s the kind of story we think of as myth. But in the case of Lincoln, the story is true…unlike the story of George Washington and the cherry tree. Washington’s first biographer invented the tale of little George saying to his father, “I cannot tell a lie. I did it with my ax.” What is important in both stories, however, is that honesty was seen as an important part of the American character. III. Characteristics of a paragraph: Unity, Coherence and Cohesion One characteristic of good paragraph is unity. In a unified paragraph, all the sentences relate to the topic and develop the controlling idea. If a sentence or idea in a paragraph does not relate to the main idea, the paragraph lacks unity. The sentences that do not relate to the main idea should be taken out of the paragraph and perhaps developed in another paragraph. Activity 4: Read the following paragraphs. For each one, underline the topic sentence. Then, draw a line through any sentences that do not support the main idea in the topic sentence. 1.​ The most obvious reason to recycle waste is to save resources. Paper companies can save trees if they collect old paper, like newspapers and computer paper, and make the used paper into new paper. Picking up all the trash paper along the road also makes the environment neat and clean. By saving trees, they save the earth’s resources. Companies that make aluminum cans can also save resources. Since aluminum is a mineral that comes from the earth, there is a limited supply of it. Some day it will all be gone. So, if we recycle aluminum cans, we can use the same aluminum over and over again. In this way we conserve the earth’s resources. 2.​ Mr. Thomas was the worst teacher I ever had. He taught general science in tenth grade. The reason he was so bad was that he tried to embarrass students. He would call on someone to answer to the question. Then, he would tease the person and say things like “you’re stupid,” or “that was the easiest question I have. ” All of the students hated going to his class. Of course, Ms. Lewis, the history teacher, was pretty bad, too. I think Mr. Thomas is the reason I’m now a business major. I’m looking forward to a career as a CPA. Another important characteristic of a good paragraph is coherence. In a coherent paragraph, the ideas are arranged logically. The ideas and sentences are in an order that makes sense to the reader. If the ideas are logically arranged, the reader can easily follow the progression of ideas. He or she can quickly understand the main idea and follow the writer’s thinking. Activity 5: Read the following paragraphs. In each one, one or more sentences is out of order. Rewrite the paragraphs to make them more coherent by putting the sentences in logical order. 1​ (1) One of the proudest moments of my childhood was the time I recited a long poem for the Christmas program at school. (2)When I was in elementary school, every year the school put on a program at Christmas time. (3)When I was about eight years old, the teacher asked me to memorize a very long poem. (4) I was really excited because I loved to memorize and to recite in front of a group. (5) I worked hard to learn the poem. (6) All the students memorized poems to recite and learned songs to sing as a group. (7) By the time the day came for the program, I had memorized the entire poem. (8) I still remember how nervous I was when the teacher called my name. (9) But I got up from my seat, walked in front of the audience, and recited the poem, just as I had learned it.(10)When the poem was over, everyone clapped. (11) The name of the poem was “The Night Before Christmas”. (12) I felt so proud of myself. (13) Even though memorizing the poem was a lot of work, it was worth it to hear the applause that day. 2​ (1)To me, Nelson Mandela is a real hero. (2)The main reason I admire him is that he fought for equal rights in his country and didn’t give up until he had achieved his goal. (3) His courage only landed him on Robbin Island, one of the toughest prisons in the world, where he was held for 26 year. (4)As a young man, he became a fighter for South African government’s policy of apartheid. (5) Even so, when he was in prison, he didn’t give up the fight. (6) He continued to talk to the other prisoners and try to get publicity for his cause. (7) After he was released from prison in 1990, he quickly took over the leadership of the opposition party and pushed the government even harder for a government that would represent all South Africans. (8) Finally, in 1994, he was successful; he saw his dream fulfilled. The reader will be able to follow a paragraph easily if the paragraph has a smooth flow. Smooth flow means that one sentence leads easily into the next sentence; the sentences are well-connected. This characteristic of a paragraph is called cohesion. The methods to achieve cohesion are repetition of ideas, pronoun consistency, synonyms and connecting words. 1.​ Repetition Example one: Pollution has a bad influence on our life. The air is polluted by the smoke and fog coming out of the factory chimneys. Plants die for lack of fresh air. The river is polluted and the fish are unfit to live. There is noise pollution made by cars and factories, etc., which hurts the ear. Example two: Without electricity, factories can't bring us with all kinds of products; without electricity, odors can't operate effectively; without electricity, people can't enjoy their lives so happily．In a word, electricity has already become an indispensable part of modern life. Example three: There is no reason for us to be enemies; neither of us seeks the territory of the other; neither of us seeks domination over the other; neither of us seeks to stretch out our hands and rule the world. 2．Pronoun Example one: Paul was awakened next morning by a painful throbbing in his head and feet. He had thrown himself across the bed without undressing, and had slept with his shoes on. His limbs and hands were led heavy, and his tongue and throat were parched and burnt. There came upon him one of those fateful attacks of dear-headedness that never occurred except when he was physically exhausted and his nerves hung loose. He lay still, closed his eyes, and let the tide of things wash over him. Example two: Whether you walk front of or behind a seated person; whether it is a friendly or an offensive gesture to put your hand on the arm of the person with whom you are talking---these and a thousand other questions are matters of cultural definition. None of them is inherently right or wrong, and none is good or bad manners except as a society defines it so. 3.​ Synonyms Example one: But never a direct protest, never rebellion, I think of others in their three-, and four-year-oldness-the explosions, the tempers, the denunciations, the demands -–and I feel suddenly ill… IV. Transition （过渡） 1. Some useful transitions To show addition（递进）: in addition, moreover, and, again, also, besides, further, furthermore To give examples（举例）: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate, as an illustration, in other words, namely, specifically, that is, sth is a good example, take sth as an example To compare（比较）: in the same manner, likewise, similarly, by comparison, in the same way. To contrast（对比）: but, however, conversely, in spite of, nevertheless, even though, on the other hand, after all, still, on the contrary, yet, whereas. To summarize or conclude（总结）: in short, in summary, in conclusion, to sum up, therefore, in brief, to conclude, all in all, in other words. To show time sequence（时间顺序）: next, then, after, before, later, soon, during, while, meanwhile, following, shortly, thereafter, the next day, finally. To show place or direction（方位）: above, over, inside, to the left/right, behind, beyond, in the center, straight ahead, next to, on the side, at the top, opposite, below, under, at the front, around, near. To indicate logical relationship（因果关系）: for this reason, hence, as a result, thus, hence, accordingly, therefore, consequently, then, so. To show sequence（先后次序）: first, second, next, then, last, finally, above all, first of all. To emphasize: certainly, undoubtedly, indeed, truly, in fact, surely. 2. Subordinate conjunctions （从属连词） Different ways of subordination: 1) By an adverbial clause: TIME: before, after, when, whenever, while, until, since PLACE: where, wherever Eg. John repaired the flat tire while I made sandwiches. CAUSE or REASON: since, because, as, as if, as though, as long as, whereas Eg. Because it is late, I have to leave. PURPOSE or RESULT: that, so, so that, in order that Eg. We went downtown so that we could do some shopping. CONCESSION or CONTRAST: although, though, even though, provided that, unless, if, than Eg. If you eat too many pies and cakes, you will put on weight. 2) By adjective clause beginning with who, which, or that Eg. Weak John came from a large, lower-class family, and he enrolled in college this fall. 3) By a modifying phrase: adjective or adverb modifier or participial phrase Eg. Weak The house is at the end of the street, and it was designed by Palladio. Weak The car had red wheels, and it won the first race. Weak Mr. Blake was named vice-president of the company last year, and he was promoted to president yesterday. Weak The ambassador delivered a speech first, and then he flew to Brazil. 4) By an appositive（同位语）. An appositive can appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence. Eg. Weak Mr. Edwards is the Executive manager of our firm, and he came to China only three years ago. Weak My uncle brought me a gift, it was a wristwatch. Usage(I): after, although, because, if, since, when, while, whenever, used in the middle of a sentence. ___________________ after/although/ because/ if/ since/ when/ while/ whenever _______________________. 3. coordination: for, and, or, nor, but, yet, so Coordinate Conjunctions Purpose Example for reason John couldn't use the pay phone, for he didn't have any. and parallel or equal side Florida has a sunny weather, and its coastline offers excellent white sand beaches. nor two equal negative sides Anne has never been dishonest, nor does she intend to start being so now. but contrasting idea The bread was not fresh, but Jenny ate it anyway. or alternative side Edward can't be ill, or he wouldn't have come. IV. Tutorial questions 1. Identify and circle the transition devices in the following paragraph. Times Squares is unquestionably the center of entertainment in New York City. There are nearly a hundred Broadway theaters and Off-Broadway（外百老汇戏剧，强调艺术价值和实验性） stages. People can choose many kinds of musicals（音乐剧） from international well-known classical to lively and unusual productions. For example, I have seen several Broadway shows like “Cats（猫）” and “Miss Saigon（西贡小姐）.” I enjoyed the emotional songs and experienced their joys and sadness. Besides Broadway theaters, there are a lot of movie theaters in which most recent Hollywood first-run films are shown. People can see different popular films and spend a whole day in these theaters. Moreover, during lunchtime, there are some street performances such as Jazz（爵士乐） and Hard Rock（硬摇滚）. People crowd the street and listen to ethnic（民族的） and experimental music with special sound effects. As a result, no one feels bored in Times Squares as it brings her or him a rich variety of entertainment like Broadway musicals, movies and street shows. 2.​ Rewrite the following paragraph combining the numbered groups of sentences into single complex sentences containing both an independent and a dependent clause. (1) I was twenty years old. I had a friend, Paul Desmond. He liked motorcycles. (2) Paul heard about a store. This store was having a sale of motorcycles. (3) The storeowner would let Paul try out a new motorcycle for three days. He had to give the owner a fifty-dollar deposit. (4) Paul couldn’t afford to part with fifty dollars. He gave the money to the owner anyway. (5) He drove the motorcycle around the city that afternoon. He decided that he liked it very much. (6) I told him that I would like to see how the motorcycle performed. He asked me to ride with him the next day. (7) We were ready to leave. My mother gave us a picnic lunch. I packed it on the motorcycle. (8) Our friends told us to have a good time. This was what we intended to do. We decided to drive far out into the country to find a stream to swim in. (9) But on the road leading out of the city we collided with an automobile. It was crossing an intersection（十字路口）。（10）The motorcycle was damaged. Paul lost his fifty-dollar deposit. He had borrowed it from his father. (11) We were both slightly injured, receiving scratches and bruises. Paul’s interest in motorcycle remained strong. 3. Revise the following passage to make it coherent. Working in the neighborhood grocery store as a checker was one of the worst jobs I’ve ever had. I had to wear an ugly, scratchy(随意的) uniform. It was cut at least three inches too short. My schedule of working hours was inconvenient. My hours changed each week. It was impossible to make plans in advance. Getting a day off was out of the question. The lack of working space bothered me. Except for a half-hour break, I was restricted to three square feet of room behind the counter. I felt like a cog （齿轮）in the cash register. 4. In the following paragraphs the beginning topic sentences have been omitted. After reading each paragraph carefully, construct a topic sentence that contains the main idea of the paragraph. A very common type is simple plagiarism（剽窃）. Unable or too lazy to formulate（形成） ideas in their own words, some students simply copy their papers from those of other students or from reports in books and magazines and then submit them as original work. To help them during examinations, students write notes and formulas on the cuffs（袖口）of their shirts, on the covers of books, and on the palms of their hands. A common technique is for students to leave the examination room to reach a previously hidden bit of information. And, finally, there are the traditional code signals used during examinations when a well-prepared student transmits（传递） his information by means of hand signals to one or more students taking the same examination. 5. The