Chapter one Introduction
一、定义
1.语言学Linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
2.普通语言学General Linguistics
The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.
3.语言language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design Features
It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性
Productivity多产性
Duality双重性
Displacement移位性
Cultural transmission文化传递
⑴arbitrariness
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions
⑵Productivity
Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.
⑶Duality
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.
⑷Displacement
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
⑸Cultural transmission
Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.
5.语言能力Competence
Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.
6.语言运用performance
Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics
The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics
The study of a given language at a given time.
9.语言langue
The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
10.言语parole
The realization of langue in actual use.
11.规定性Prescriptive
It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.
12.描述性Descriptive
A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
二、知识点
1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.
语言不是一种孤立的现象,而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
2.几种观点和现象的提出者:
⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue和parole的区别
⑵U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomsky
in1950针对Saussure‘s langue&parole提出Competence和performance
⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.
Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett
提出了语言的识别特征design features
3.the word ‘language‘ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.
Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.
5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题
6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。
三、问答题
1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?
Phonetics----it‘s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it‘s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.
Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
Morphology---It‘s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.
Semantics---It‘s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.
Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
2.why do we say language is arbitrary?
Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.
The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it‘s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept a t work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.
A typical example to illustrate the ?arbitrariness‘ of language is ?a rose by any other name would smell as sweet‘.
3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的,其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on‘ high‘ written language.
传统语法是规定性的,研究?高级‘书面语。
4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的,重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究,否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?
Speech enjoys for the following reasons:
⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.
⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.
⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.
6.how is Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky‘s ?
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study
Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
6.the distinction between langue and parole?
⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.
1/ What is linguistics?
什么是语言学?
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
2/ The scope of linguistics
语言学的研究范畴
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)
The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.(语音学)
The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. (音系学) The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. (形态学)
The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax(句法学) The study of meaning in language is called semantics. (语义学)
The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. (语用学)
The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. (社会语言学)
The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. (心理语言学)
The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. (应用语言学)But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic
principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.
Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, (人类语言学)neurological linguistics, (神经语言学)mathematical linguistics, (数字语言学)and computational linguistics. (计算机语言学)
3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics
语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写
If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is ―correct‖ or not.
Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.
Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.
Langue and parole 语言和言语
The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‘s.
He defines competence as the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
Chapter Two Phonology
一、定义
1.宽式音标Broad transcription
The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.
2.窄式音标Narrow transcription
The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.
3.清音V oiceless
When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.
4.浊音V oicing
Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.
5.元音V owel
The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.
6.辅音Consonants
The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.
7.音位Phoneme
The basic unit in phonology, it‘s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
8.音位变体Allophones
Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
9.音素phone
A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it‘s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.
10.最小对立对Minimal pair
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
11.超切分特征Suprasegmental
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.
12.互补分布complementary distribution P35
Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.
在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。
14.爆破音stops
When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.
they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
二、知识点
1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.
2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.
3.Phonetic 组成
⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed
⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学
⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
4.articulatoryApparatus /Organs of Speech
Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔
Oral ...–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here
Nasal …–鼻腔
5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.
6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the
sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].
7.nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]
9. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
10.Sequential rules例子
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:
⑴the first phoneme must be /s/
⑵the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/
⑶the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w
11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone
三、问答题
1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound? Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.
Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.
Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.
发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音,以及这些语音为何有所不同。
听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质,得出了重要结论,即语音同一只是理论上的理想。
声学语音学研究语音的物理性质,研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。
2.how are the English consonants classified?
By place of articulation and By manner of articulation
3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?
语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?
Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.
Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.
4.what‘s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophone s related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.
Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.
Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?
Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.
除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.
Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合.
By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.
通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.
6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?
Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.
Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.
7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.
有序规则Sequential rules
Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
同化规则Assimilation rules
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by‘ copying ‘a feature of a sequential p honeme, thus making the two phones similar.
省略规则Deletion rule
It‘s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.
Chapter Three Morphology
一、定义
1.词素Morpheme
The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.
2.自由词素Free Morpheme
Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
3.黏着词素Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.
4.词根Root
Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.词缀Affix
The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes
The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.
7.派生词缀Derivational affixes
The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.
8.词干Stem
A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
9.形态学规则Morphological rules
They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前缀Prefix
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original w ord, exceptions are the prefixes ?be-? and ?en(m)-?
11.后缀Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against
Over-generalization.
二、知识点
Inflectional morphology
1.Morphology
Derivational morphology
Free morphemes
Morphemes Root
Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes
Affixes
Prefix
Derivational affixes
2.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix
4.Compound features:
⑴orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.
⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.
⑶semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component
Chapter Four Syntax
一、定义
1.句子sentence
A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
2.语言运用Linguistic competence
The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.
3.谓语Predicate
The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.
4.定式子句Finite Clause
A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone.
5.从属子句Embedded Clause (E C)
In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C .
6.主要子句Matrix Clause
In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.
7.层次结构Hierarchical structure
The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.
8.语法关系Grammatical relations
The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.
9.句法类型Syntactic category
A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.
10.表层结构S-structure
A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
11.深层结构D-structure
A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
12.普遍语法General grammar
A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.
13.移动α 规则Move α
A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.
14.句法移位Syntactic movement
Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. 15.转换原则Transformation rules
Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
16.X标杆理论X-bar theory
A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single
format :X‖→(Spec)X(Compl).
一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示,它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式
X‖→(Spec)X(Compl)
a: X‖ b: X‖ Spec X‘
Spec X‘ X‘ X compl
X complement
NP ‘the student who likes linguistics‘ consists of Det, N and S with Det b eing the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成,冠词是指示语,名词是核心词,子句是补足语。
二、知识点
1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.
2.我们把syntax的学习看作a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.
3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.
4.判断题:the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
5.判断题:A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.
一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词,表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。
6.句子的分类simple sentence
Types of sentences coordinate or compound sentence
Complex sentence
简单句---It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
并列句合成句-It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as ―but‖, ‖and‖. ect.
复合句—It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
复合句的特点:
⑴An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause
⑵Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as ‖that‖
⑶An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.
子句是一个语法单位,大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词,如果子句作为秒年第秒年句单独存在,它可能不是一个合乎
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的句子,除非改变他的形式。
7.when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence.
8.The hierarchical nature of sentence structure句子结构层次特点
sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together.
9.The points at which the tree braches at various levels are called Branching nodes分叉点
10.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.
11.句法类型
Major …主要词类open ,can add new words
Lexical category 名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,Adv
Syntactic Minor… 次要词类close, words are fixed
Categories 限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int Phrasal category
Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word(called a lexical category) or a phrase(called phrasal category)that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence.
12.短语类型
Noun Phrase NP
Phrasal Verb Phrase VP
Categories Preposition Phrase PP
Adjective Phrase AP
13.The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each moun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to ‘who‘ does ‘what ‘to ‘whom‘.
14.we usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of.
15.Combinational rules must be small in number so as not to create extra burdens on the human memory. also these rules must be powerful enough to yield all the possible sentences, and rule out the impossible ones
组合规则一定不能太多,以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担,用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子,而排除不可能的句子。
16.rules an generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.
循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分,使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。17.移位类型
Syntactic NP-movement=t‘s involving the movement of a noun phrase.
Movement 名词短语的移位
WH-movement=It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.
陈述变疑问句
AUX-…=the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position.
助动词移位到句首的移位
18.普遍语法的广义原则
General Principles of Universal Grammar: Case Condition和Adjacency Condition
格条件---a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position.
名词词组必须有格,宾语的格是由动词或介词决定,而主语的格由助动词决定。
相邻条件—a case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other,it explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.
格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。
19.Universal Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves增and减set on the Adjacency condition. with English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增value, while for French-type language, the parameter is set to减value.
三、问答题
1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.
⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind
⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.
Chapter 5 Semantics
一、定义
1.命名论The naming theory
The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.
2.意念论The conceptualist view
It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.语境论Conceptualism
It‘s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.
4.行为主义论Behaviorism
It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the‖ situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.
5.意义Sense
I t‘s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It‘s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it‘s abstract and de-contextualized.
6.所指意义Reference
It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
7.同义词Synonymy
It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.
8.多义词Polysemy
It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.
9.同音(形)异义Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
10.同音异义Homophones
It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.
11.同形异义Homographs
It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.
12.上下义关系Hyponymy
It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.
13.反义词Antonymy
It‘s the term used for opposit eness of meaning on different dimension.
14.成分分析法Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义
It‘s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis 由British Linguist G.Leech提出
It‘s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.
Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect.
通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析,达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。
16.先设前提Presupposition
It‘s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
17.蕴涵Entailment
Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.
A: Mark married a blonde heiress.
B: Mark married a blonde.
二、知识点
1.Major views of meaning study:
The naming Theory-----希腊Scholar Plato
The conceptualism-----观点代表人是John Firth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力
The Conceptualist view----Ogden和Richards用classic semantic triangle of
significance
The Behaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出,使用了Jack和Jill故事阐明
The naming theory的局限性:
⑴It‘s only applicable to Nouns only.
⑵Within the category of nouns, the re are nouns which denote things that don‘t exist in the real world. sense
2.Lexical meaning reference
3.主要的意义关系
Synonymy ;Antonymy; Hyponymy; Polysemy; homonymy
4. (1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects Synonyms (2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style
分类(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning
(4)Semantically different synonyms
例子:
(1)British English Lift Luggage Lorry Petrol Flat windscreen torch American English Elevator Baggage Truck Gasoline Apartment windshield flashlight (2)kick the bucket=pop off=die=pass away=decease
5.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.
6. some synonyms differ in their collocation.
例子: Accuse….of charge…. with rebuke….for sour milk
Rotten tomatoes addled eggs rancid bacon or butter
7. a polysemic word, i.e, a word with several meaning, is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word. complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.
8.According naming theory words are just names or labels for things.
9.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatiotemporal situation, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance ,the speaker and the hearer, the action they are performing at the time, the various objects and event existed in the situation.
10.the contextulist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield, who drew on behaviourist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.
11 Homophones—when two words are identical in sound
Rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek
Homonymy Homographs—when two words are identical in spelling
分类Bow v. /bow n. tear v./ tear n lead v./lead n.
Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling
and sound.例子Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.
12. (1)Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree)
例子Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold
Antonym (2) Complementary antonyms互补反义词a matter of degree between
分类two extremes例子Alive—dead; male—female;
(3) Relational opposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分,如上、中、下)
father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below
13.句子间的意义关系sense relation between sentences
X is synonymous with Y.
X entails Y.
X presupposes Y.
X is a contradiction.
X is semantically anomalous.
14. Analysis of meaning意义的分析
(1)Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning对词汇成分的分析
(2) Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning对句子意义的分析
(1)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called Semantic features.
一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义。
This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.
这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。
Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.
加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省,这些特征用大写字母来写。
15.the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.
Two aspects of Sentence meaning: grammatical and semantic meaning.
16.Selectional restrictions---
Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules.
17.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication------
Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative.
Predication consists of Arguments and Predicates.
述谓是句子基本单位,是对句子的抽象化,适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。
An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者,谓词是关于论元的陈述,或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。
18.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication(has two arguments),one-place predication (has one argument),and no-place predication(has no argument).
19.判断题:although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication. the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect. it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments.
20.The analysis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter.
三、问答题
1.how are sense and reference related?
Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it‘s abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.
2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?
成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处?
In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.
3.what‘s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?
什么是语法性?一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?
Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.
A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all
Chapter 6 pragmatics
一、定义
1.语境Context
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it‘s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
2.言语行为理论Speech act theory
It‘s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it‘s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ‖what do we do when using
la nguage?‖
The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.
3.叙述句Constatives
Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;
4.行为句Performatives
Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
5.言内行为Locutionary Act
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it‘s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
6.言外行为Illcotionary Act
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention it‘s the ac t performed in saying something.
7.言后行为Perlocutionary Act
Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it‘s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.
8.句子意义Sentence meaning
It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.
9.话语意义Utterance meaning
It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
10.合作原则Cooperative Principle
It‘s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 11.会话含义Conversational implicatures
According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener o nly when he shares the speaker‘s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.
话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。
二、知识点
1.语用学的几个重要的理论
⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory
由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出
在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句performatives
在区分叙述句和行为句之后,他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为
例子:you have left the door wide open.
Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean.
Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door.
Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.
※在这三种行为中,语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣
cos this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker‘s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer.
⑵会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice提出;
2. 合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle
数量the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求
Make your contribution as informative as required;
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
Do not say what you believe to false.
Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence
关系the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant
方式the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义,应简明有序
Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;
Be brief/be orderly.
3.六七十年代时,美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类
阐述性Representatives---to commit the speaker to something‘s being the
Case ,to the truth of what has been said.
例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性,
指令性Directives---are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do
something.
例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening,
ordering 是特有实例
承诺性Commissives---when speaking the speaker puts himself under
obligation.
例词:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型
表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards
an existing state of affairs.
例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating
宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings
about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句
I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you.
这五类differ in their strength or force.
4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
5.语境中听者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types:
The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.
6.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别
Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.
Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it‘s based on sentence meaning, it‘s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
区分句子和话句,类似区分语义和语用学,关键在于是否考虑语境。
7.While most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e. most utterances are complete sentences
In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can‘t even be restored to complete sentences Chapter 7 Historical linguistics
一、定义
1.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics
A term used in stead of historical linguistics to the study of language change at various points in time at various historical stage.
2.元音大交替Great V owel Shift
A series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.
3.词尾脱落Apocope
The deletion of a word-final vowel segment.
4.插入音Epenthesis
The insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word.
5.首字母缩略词Acronym
A word created by combining the initials of a number of words.
6.混合法Blending
A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words.
7.缩写词Abbreviation
A shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.
8.略写词Clipping
A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.
9.逆向构词法Back-formation
A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word.
10.语义扩大化Semantic broadening
The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historical earlier denotation.缩小less general or inclusive
11.原始语Protolanguage
The original form of a language family which has ceased to exist.
12.语系Family language
A group of historically related languages that have developed from a comon ancestral language.
13.同源词Cognate
A word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source.
14.语音同化Sound assimilation
The physiological effect of one sound on another.
15.内部借用Internal borrowing
The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation.
16.派生法Derivation
It refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.
17.语义转换Semantic shift
It‘s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning.
18.语义细化Elaboration
Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
19.古英语Old English
Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxsons invaded b the British Isles from northern Europe.
20.中世纪英语Middle English in 1066
Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England under William.
二、知识点
1.the historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.
2.Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
3.Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar.
4.in old English, nearly half of the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative cases.
5.one of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in the Vowel Change.
6英语发展的三个历史时期及历史事件
Old English(449-1100):
Began with the invasion of the British Isles by English-speaking Anglo-
Saxons from Europe, ended with the arrival of Norman French invaders
historically known as the Norman Conquest.
Middle English(1100-1500)
It‘s distinguished from the Old English period by the Norman Conquest.
Shakespeare‘s plays and Milton‘s Poems 受欧洲文艺复兴运动影响最大。
Modern English(1500 up to now)
From the Modern English period as the result of the cultural influence
of the European renaissance movement.
7.古英语和现代英语词的对比
Old English Modern English
Mann man
Wif woman
Cild child
Hus house
Mete food
Etan eat
Drincan drink
Feohtan fight
8.the most wide-spread morphological change in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.
9.As the result of Norman Conquest of 1066, vast quantities of French words were added to English vocabulary.
10.in general, linguistic change in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language is more noticeable than that in other systems of the grammar.
11.the ancient adjective agreement rule was dropped out of English mainly because the inflectional endings to show agreement in case, number and gender became distinct.
12.英语的语言变化linguistic change of English (loss, addition, change)
声音Sound change
形态Morphological change
句法Syntactic change
语义Semantic change
词汇Lexical change
13.Language change is essentially a matter of change in the Grammar.
14.Sound change includes changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. Great Vowel Shift Sound Loss Sound Gain
Middle
E. Modern
E. Middle
E. Modern E. Middle
E. Modern E.
Five Fi:v Faiv Nicht/nixt nait Spinle spindle
Mous Mu:s Maus Goose/go:si Gu:s Film Filum
口语发音
Feet Fe:t Fi:t Name/na:ma Neim Glimse Glimpse
Mood Mo:d Mu:d Love/luv l∧v Timer timber
Break Brз:ken Breik Helpe尾音Help消失
Broke Brc:ken Brзuk
15.The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.
16.Sound loss的特征或现象
⑴Voiceless velar fricative/x/ which existed in Old english words such as‘‘nicht‘‘,pr onounced as
/nixt/,the sound absent in the present-day form of ?night‘.
⑵ Consonant loss involves the/kn/ clusters in the word-initial position. 如goose
⑶Systematic sound losses such as plural pronunciation rule has disappeared.
⑷Deletion of Word-final vowel segment, 如name.love
17.判断题a change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as Epenthesis. (此现象属于sound addition)
例子
Spinle→spindle emty→empty glimse→glimpse timer→timber
18.语音的移位
Sound change as a result of sound movement,known as metathesis.it involvesa reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments.一般是r的移位
例子: bridd→bird hros→horse
19. Affix loss的特征或现象
⑴Morphemes wound change a word from one lexical category to another
⑵The drop of the causative verb formation rule.使意动词的丢失:
如-yan加在adj word后可变成causative verb.
⑶The loss of gender and case markings
20.the most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of gender and case markings.Old english had a gender-marking system has 3genders:
Masculine , feminine and neuter.阳性、阴性和中性词。
如:stan(stone) 阳性;gief(gift)阴性;deor(wild animal)中性
21.语音的移位大多数是因为influence of foreign languages.其中french影响最大,如
-able,-ment,-ize.
22. Rule addition的特征或现象
⑴Particle movement,古英语没有此现象,现代英语有
⑵Auxiliary verbs and main verbs的区分,16世纪前没有此现象
如:助动词疑问词interrogative sentences的前面
23.在句法规则的增加中,old english period is known as the Particle movement rule,for modern english showes the particle of some phrasal verbs like‖throw out‖,‖turn-off‖to postpone to the right of the object.
如John thew out the ball through the door/John thew the ball out through the door.
在古代英语中,没有particle移位现象。
24.Languages vary in the order of the subject,the verb and the object.the two typical ways to represent distinction of subject and object nouns are through extensive case marking and rigid word order.
25.在古英语中,句子的顺序是SVO,VSO,SOV和OSV,The loss of case contrasts was compensated for with the adoption of the consistent SVO order.
26.The most vigorous and on-going change in the historical development of a language is the change in its V ocabulary.
27.French loan words did not always replace Old english words,but in many instances existed alongside of the native English vocabulary.sometimes, french loan words were used in conjunction with native English words to create Contrast.
28.词汇的增加borrowing 和word formation.
The most obvious way in which modern english differs lexically from old english is the number of Borrowed words from other languages.
29.Old english contained a number of morphological rules that are extinct.
例子:大部分是derivational affixes.
-baere , lust(―pleasure‖)+baere→lustbaere(―agreeable‖)-bora,
mund(―protection‖)+bora→(―protector‖)During the Renaisance,many latin and Greek words became part of the educated egnlish lexicon
30.New words have made their entry into english via word formation rules.
例子Compounding: sailboat, big-mouth, cross-cultural, three-year-old
Derviation :uglification, finalize,
Acronym formation: radar(radio detecting and ranging)、CD-ROM(compat disk of read-only memory)、laser、UNESCO
Blending : smog(smoke+fog) brunch(breafast+lunch) motel(motor+hotel)
Abbreviation :TV(televistion) Dr(doctor ) ft(foor or feet) N.Y(New York)
Clipping :gym(gymnasium) sci fi(science fiction) e-mail、
phys ed(physical education)、hi-fi(high fidelity高保真)
Back-formation :typewriter(typewriter) edit (editor)
Coinage : Kleenex (soft cleansing tissue) kodak 、xerox(photo copier)
※语义的变化Semantic Change 这一节非常重要
32.It‘s comparative in t he sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among langauges, classifying related languages into language families,and reconstructin their ancestral languages.what follows is a very brief account focusing on how historical linguists established genetic relationships of languages,and in particular,the Indo-Europeean language family.
33.至今世界上已有over five thousand langauges are spoken.
chinese :over 1.2billion native speakers
Danish : less than 5million native speakers
English: fewer than chinese,400million
The four thousand languages have developed from their historical roots.
To today,about thirty language families have been documented in historical linguistic literature.
34.To identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree,and to reconstruct the protolanguage,the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.
35. A language family is established by the use of a method known as Comparative reconstruction.
36.Reliable linguistic signs of family relationships include systematic phonological, morphological, and semantic resemblances among the vocabulary items of different languages.
37.语义的变化类型※
41.With the application of the comparative method,Persia,northern part of india were able to reconstruct the grammar of a single origin known as proto-Indo-European,from which a number of subfamilies of European and Indian subcontinental languages evloved.
42.判断题syntactically,the verb of an old English sentence precedes, rather than follows,the subject ,as is indicated by the transcription.
43.Norman Conquer makrked the dawning of the Middle English period.
44.Bilingual,pidin&creole speakers contribute to formation of新语言变体
三、问答题
1.描述变化的本质characterized the nature of language change
All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar.
2.语言变化的原因list the major causes of language change
Sound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing与语法变化有关
⑴语音同化Sound assimilation
Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes.
⑵规则简化Rule simplification
It‘s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english.
⑶内部借用Internal Borrowing
It‘s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a language‘s grammatical sys tem as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another.
⑷规则细化Elaboration
It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
⑸社会因素Social triggers
⑹文化转移Cultural transmission
⑺儿童语法接近成人语法Childre n‘s approximation toward the adult grammar.
A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instrucation of grammatical rules, they often construct their personal information they hear.
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics
一、定义
1.言语社区Speech Community
It refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.
2.社会方言Socialect
A variety of language used by people belonging to a prticular social class.
3.语域Register
A functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.
4.
标准
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语Standard Language
A superposed prestigious variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.
5.通用语Lingua Franca
A variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects.
6.洋泾浜语Pidgin边缘性接触语言=有限的词汇+缩减的语法结构by其他语言的本族语者
A marginal contact language with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures,used by native speakers of other languages as a means of business communication.
7.双言现象Diglossia
A sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation.
8.语言禁忌Linguistic taboo
An obscene,profane,or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and ―polite‖society.
9.委婉语Euphemism
A word or expression that is thought to be mild,indirect,or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression.
10.语码转换Code-Switching
It refers to a bilingual speaker foten uses two languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker.人们在交际中根据需要轮流使用不同的语言、方言或其他变体。
11.语言变体Speech V ariety
It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or gourp of speakers.the distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic,or a combination of linguistic features.
12.双语Bilingualism
It refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by
a group of speakers.
13.少数民族方言Ethnic Dialect
It refers to a phenomenon that within a society speech variation may come about cos of different ethnic backgrounds.
14.使用域Domain
It refers to a phenomenon that mo st bilingual communities have one thing in common,that‘s, a fairly clear functional diferentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations,for example, the home Domain,Employment Domain.
15.语言
计划
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Language Planning
It‘s certain authorities,such as the government choosees a particular speech variety and spread the use of it,including its pronunciation and spelling systems,across regional boundaries.
16.发音Accent
If refers to a way of pronunciation which tells the listener something about the spe aker‘s regional or social background.
17.习语Idiolect=Personal dialect
A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional,social,and stylistic variation,in one form or another.
18.混合语Creoles
It‘s orig inally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.e.g. French-based creoles spoken in Haiti and Louisiana.
19.语言情景Language Situation
A linguistic situation in which two standard language are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers,such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. For example, in Canada, both english and french are official languages.
20.区域变体Regional Variation
Speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.e.g. American English and British English,ect.
21.语域变体Register Varieties=Situational Dialects
Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations,in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. 22.称呼术语Address Terms
An address term,or address form refers to the word or words used to address somebody in speech or writing.
23.俚语Slang
It‘s a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary,typically of arbitrary,flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.
24. 社会语言学Sociolinguistics
It‘s the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language with in socical context.
二、知识点
1.Sociolinguists are concerned with the social singificance of language variation and language use in different speech communities including regional,ethnic and social groups.
2.In sociolinguistic studies,speakers are treated as memebers of social groups.
3.Social groups may be defined in a number of ways besides regionally.it may distinguish itself from rest of the community by its distinct ethnic affiliation.
4.Considered a more neutral term,speech variety is sometimes used intead of standard
langauge,vernacular language,dialect,pidgin,creole,ect.
5.语言学家最感兴趣的三个语言变体Regional dialects,sociolects or social dialects and registers.
6.Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable.
7.Stylistic variation in a person‘s speech,or writing,usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.
8.判断题the standard language is a superposed,socially prestigious dialect of language,it's the langauge employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media,and taught in educational institutions,including school settings where the langaue is taught as a foreign or second language.
9.Language varieties other han the standard are called nonstandard,or vernacular languages.
10.The standard language of many countries,is also designated as the national or official language.
11.Lingua franca,an italian term literally meaning‖frankish language‖or‖frankish tongue‖.
12.The spoken language of modern china普通话embodies thepronunciation of the Beijing dialect, the grammar of Northern chinese dialects, the vocabulary of modern colloquial chinese.
13.通用语Lingua Franca和洋泾浜语Pidgin的区别
⑴Pidgin is used for some practical purposes,such as trading,by groups of people who donot know each other‘s langauge.Lingua Franca may have native speakers such as English,
⑵Pidgin is not a native language of a particular region,but simply a marginal language used by people whose cultures are sharply separated and whoes business contact is very specialized.
14.The original Lingua Franca is believed to be an Indian-based pidgin used in Mediterranean ports
15.Most of the historical pidgins have become extinct.
16.The grammatical features such as case,tense,mood and voice are generally absent in pidgins,a pidgin typically lacks inflectional morphemes.
17.English-based pidgins are characterized by an absence of any complex grammatical morphology and a limited vocabulary.
18.Pidgins have strict rules for determining word orders to compensate for the lack of case endings on nouns.
19.Creoles最早来自长在南美洲的西班牙或葡萄牙裔。
20.Diglossia现象存在
⑴mostly in Arabic-speaking counties,
⑵Modern Greek,Swiss German and Haitian Creole.
⑶in Paraguay,spanish as the high variety and local Indian language Guarani as the low variety.
21.Bilingualism现象存在
⑴Canada: English and French
⑵Finland: Finnish and Swedish
⑶Belgium: French and Flemish Dutch
22.Most bilingual communities have one thing in common,that‘s a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situation known as domains.
23.An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less priviledged population that has experienced form of social isolation,such as racial discrimination or segregation.
24.The most widespread and most familiar ethnic variety of the english langauge is Black English.
25. 教育变体Education varieties Socialect
年龄变体Age varieties
Social Dialect 性别变体Gender varieties
社会方言语域变体Register varieties
称谓术语Address terms
俚语Slang
语言禁语Linguistic taboo
委婉Euphemism from a Greek word
26.当五岁时,syntax is more standard,vocaulary is limited;十岁时,comparatively extensive vocabulary, structure of utterance doesnot dif fer from adults‘speech.
27.词汇方面,年龄和时代的不同is more noticeable across three generation time span than
two-generation time span.
28.Language reflects deep-rooted sexist social attitude toward females by the way neutral terms are interpreted.
29.I t‘s one way out of the communication dilema is language standardization known as language planning.
30.Standard language is a supposed,socially prestigious dialect of language.
31.One specific aspect of situational use of language is address term usage.
32.委婉语portly,full-figured代fat,inexpensive代cheap,indisposed代sick.
33.The english system of adress terms称谓方法
frist name:Esperanto last name : Du title+last name : Mr.Du
title alone : Professor kin term : Dad
34.Christains的禁忌语‖take the lord‘s name in vain‖,如hell,darn,
In England,‖bloody‖is a taboo word which originally referred to the blood of
Christ,some‖respectable‖people consider it a horrid word on a par with obscene or profane language and constantly in the mouths of uneducated speakers.
35.overt thought或subvocal speech(均可用下面定义)
Language and thought may be viewed as indpenedent circles overlapping in some parts,where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other,
When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other,we may regard thought
as‖subvocal speech‖,and speech as‖overt thought‖.
三、问答题
1.特殊语域的区分how to distinguish a particular register from other registers?
⑴distinctive words
⑵using words or phrases in a particular way.
⑶speical grammatical constructions,such as scientific language,or legal language.
2.双语和双言的区分distinction between Bilingualism and Diglossia.
Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used in a speech community;in a diglossic community,two varieties of language are used for different situations,one
being more standard and higher,and used for more formal matters,the other less prestigious,used for colloquial situations.
双言现象是一个社区有两种标准语,双言社区中,两种语言变体被用作不同的情景。一个较为标准,处于高层次;另一个较为口语化,声望不高。
3. 黑人英语的特点
⑴ one of the most prominent phonological features of black english is the simplification of a consonant cluster at the end of a word dropping the word-final phoneme.e.g.‖desk‖pronounced
as/des/,―told‖ prono unced as /tou/;
音系特征,通过去掉词尾的音素简化位于词尾辅音连缀。
⑵one of the syntactic feature of black english is the absence of the copula,such as ―they mine‖,―you crazy‖. Copula deletion as such occurs in some other english dialects,as well as in language like Arabic,Russian and chinese;
语法特征,经常缺失系词.
⑶the double negation construction with sentence like‖I donot know nobody‖.
语法特征,双重否定结构.
黑人英语的disinctive feature persis not for racial,but for social,educationa and economic reasons. 4.列举女性言语和男性言语相异的方面
List several ways of speech of women and men differ from each other.
⑴Women tend to use more presigious forms,more polite and indirect language,and more specific color terms than their male counterparts.
⑵Women use more questions than declarative statements than males.
5.Why is productivity unique to langauge?
⑴The productivity of language is the property which enables its users to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances,including the novel utterances that they have never said heard before,
⑵The feature is unique to human langauge because most animal communication system appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.
⑶For example,bee dancing is used only to indicate nectar sources,which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the meaning.
6.Why is syntax regarded as a system of rules?
As a major component of grammar,syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical setences.A sentence is considered grammatical when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.if,on the other hand,a sentence violates a rule according to which words are organized,then native speakers will judge it to be an impossible sentence of that langauge.
Universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a langauge speaker.
For any natural language,it's the set of rules that makes it possible for the speakers to
produce,comprehend and memorize the vase number of sentences of their native language
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics
一、定义
1.大脑皮层Cerebral Cortex
The outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.
接受所有感觉器官传来的信息,是人的认知能力所存在的区域。
2.大脑侧化Brain Lateralization
The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.
认知机能和感知机能位于大脑的某一半球。
3.语言侧化Linguistic lateralization
Hemispheric specialization or dominance for language.
4.两耳分听Dichotic Listening
A research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.
5.关键期the critical period
An early period of one‘s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain laterlization for language functions.
6. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis假设
A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.
人们看世界的方式完全或部分地由他们母语的结构决定,
7.自我交际Interpersonal communication
The process of using language within the individual to facilitate one‘s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts.
语言使用者本人用语言促进自己的思维和帮助形成和使用概念的过程。
8.无声言语Subvocal Speech
A term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other.
用于指语言和思维是同一或近乎相同的.
9.神经元Neurons
Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called Neurons. 10.脑半球Hemispheres
The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemisphere.
11.Broca‘s area French Surgeon: Paul Broca
The language centre in the front al lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere is know as Broca‘s area.
12.语言决定论Linguistic determinism
Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language, or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.
13.语言相对论Linguistic relativism
It refers to the belief that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background.
It‘s hypothesis proposed by an American li nguist Benjamin Lee Whorf concerning language and thought.
二、知识点
1.Three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language:
Broca‘s area. =Expression
Wernicke‘s area=Understanding
Angular gyrus. =converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form, vice versa
2.The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body.
3.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain---Cerebral cortex.
4.The Cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary actions
5.大脑侧化for major mental functions under control of each hemisphere
Left hemisphere Right hemisphere
语言和言语
language &speech 非语言声音的感知
perception of nonlinguistic sounds
分析性推理
analytic reasoning 整体性推理
holistic reasoning
时间安排
Temporal ordering 视觉和空间技能
visual &spatial skills
读和写
reading &writing 图案识别
recognition of patterns
计算和联想
calculation &associative thought 音乐旋律的识别
recognition of musical melodies
6.The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational.
7.Most individuals, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, regardless of handiness.
8.Evidence in support of lateralization for language in left hemisphere comes from researches in Dichotic listening tasks.两耳分听证明了左半球的侧化。
9.Righ hear advantage shows the left hemisphere is not superior for processing all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that's where language centers reside.
右耳优势证明了大脑左半球并不是处理所有声音时都有优势,只是处理本质上是语言的声音时有优势:大脑左侧负责语言,语言中枢就位于这一部分。
10.法国外科医生Broca是第一个证明damage to a specific area of the brain results in a speech production deficit.
11.德国内科医生Carl Wernicke在1874发表的论文假设there was more than one language area in the left brain.
12.Angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke‘s area.this area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, for the comprehension of written language and require connections between visual and speech organs.
13.When we listen,the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke‘s area.
14.The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one‘s life extending from about two to puberty. 定义!!
15.Lenneberg的推断,推出了Cerebral plasticity.
16.判断题A safe conclusion from Genie‘s case for the moment is that the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.
17. 早期学者针对语言和思想的观点
⑴Plato suggested t hat thought was the soul‘s discourse with itself.
柏拉图认为语言和思想相互统一的。
⑵Aristotle, who argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experiences.
亚里士多德认为语言只是人类体现的符号。
The debate between them, one being mentalist, other empiricist.
两个人的观点向背。一个是心灵主义,另一个是经验主义。
⑶Watson, thinking involved the same motor activities used in speaking, Bloomfield, thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible.
美国的Watson承袭了Plato的观点,Bloomfield提出了近似的观点。
18.填空The relationship between the name and the meaning of a word is quite arbitrary. !!!!
19.Language as a conventional coding system to express thought.
20.we recognize that language doesn‘t so muc h determine the way we think as it influences the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affects the ease with which we perform mental tasks.
21.Major functions of language
⑴ a means of interpersonal communication.人际交流
⑵ a means of intrapersonal communication.自我交流
22.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
他的假设证明了语言决定思想
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposes that the language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and so the nature of thought.
三、问答题
1.in what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized?
In what have come to be known as Broca‘s area, Wernicke‘s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain.
2.how In your opinion does language relate thought and culture?
Language doesn‘t determine the wa y the speaker perceives the world, but largely functions as a means by which information can be stored and received, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts other members of the cultures.
3.Describe the processes of language perception, comprehension and production.
It‘s been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern,
when we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke‘s area, this signal is then transferred to Broca‘s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vocal tract to physically articulate the word.
When we speak, words are drawn from Wernick e‘s area and sent to Broca‘s area which determines the details of their form and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area. Chapter 10 Language Acquisition
一、定义
1.语言习得Language acquisition
Language acquisition ref ers to the development of the Child‘s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.
2.输入Input
It refers to the language which a learner bears or receives and from which he or she can learn.
3.行为主义学习理论Behaviourist learning theory
It‘s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner‘s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition.
源自心理学的理论—行为主义,它认为儿童的语言行为是与他们所受刺激和随之的反应成相互条件的。
4.独词句One word holophrase / holophrase
It refers to a single word that appears in children‘s early speech and functions as a complex idea or sentence.
5.电报式言语Telegraphic speech 属于early multiword 阶段
It re fers to the early speech of children. it‘s so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams(such as non-substantive words and inflectional morphemes).
也可以说成缺少inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories.
6.转移Language transfer
It refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative.
7.对比分析Contrastive Analysis
It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner‘s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.
补充establish linguistic differences between native and target language systems.
8.错误分析Error Analysis
An approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner‘ s mother tongue int erference but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules.
一种研究和分析第二语言学习者所犯错误的方法.它指出语言学习者所犯的许多错误不是母语干扰所致而是体现了一些普遍的学习策略.如概括过度和规则简化。
9.语际语Interlanguage
The approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language.
第二语言学习这在学习过程中所构建的近乎目标语的语言体系,它体现了学习者在目标学习的过渡性语言能力。
10.语言僵化Fossilization
A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.
11.工具性学习动机Instrumental motivation
The learner‘s desire to learn a second language because its useful for some functional, ?‘instrumental‘ goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, or reading for information.
12.介入性学习动机Integrative motivation
The learner‘s desire to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.为了与人交流。
13.语言文化移入Acculturation
A process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community.
14.幼儿保育员言语Caretaker speech
Simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, ect. When they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language.
15.干扰Interference
The effect of one‘s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.
16.国际语法Universal Grammar
The different languages have a similar level of complexity and detail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system is called..
17.第一语言的习得the 1st language acquisition
The development of a first or native language is called the 1st language acquisition.
18.It‘s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an openin g vocabulary of more than 2.000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.
19.语法系统发展
语音Phonology
句法Syntax
形态Morphology
词汇和语义V ocabulary and semantics
20.判断题Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire the ?more difficult‘ sounds.
21.The emergency of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds.
22.Researchers are particularly interested in the increasing complexity of negative sentences in child language development. they have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development.
23.判断题SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquires or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language.(L1)
24.美国的Stephenson Krashen区分了Acquisition和Learning
He said Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
Learning, it is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
25.判断题The learner‘s transitional competence moving alo ng a learning continuum stretching from one‘s L1competence to the target language competence.
26.About the interlanguage, specifically, it consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner‘s native and target languages. It‘s a product of L2learning, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.
语际语包含一系列与本族语和目的语的相关并相似的语言体系,既介于本族语和目的语之间,又不同于他们的语言体系。语际语是第二语言训练、母语干扰、对目的语语言规则概括以及学习者的学习和交际策略的综合产物。
27.判断题although its found that formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and in so doing enables the classroom learner to perform a wider range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition.
尽管正规教学几乎不能影响第二语言习得的自然轨道,但却能为学习者提供接受可理解的输入信息的机会,这样做是课堂学习者比自然学习者所进行的第二语言学习得面要广一些,从而加速其习得过程。
28.学习者的个人因素Individual Learner Factors
最佳学习年龄The optimum age for 2nd language acquisition:
动机Motivation
语言文化移入Acculturation
学习者的个性Personality
三、问答题
1. what are the major individual factors for SLA?
The acquisition of a second language is dependent on a combination of factors.the rate and ultimate success in SLA are also affected by individual learner factors.
(1)The early years of one‘s life before puberty;
(2)They must have strong motivation, instrumental or integrative;
(3)The extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community, that is , acculturation.
(4)Learner‘s personality.
2.Different theories of child language acquisition have been advanced, discuss two contrasting views with reference to the behaviorist learning model and the nativist biological model.
论述行为主义学习理论和生物先天论这两种相对立的观点。
The Behaviourist view:
language acquisition is a process of habit formation. Language is learned through stimulus and response. Reinforcement of selected responses is the key to understanding language development. Children learn to produce correct sentences because they are positively reinforced when they say something right and negatively reinforced when they say something wrong.
语言习得是一个习惯培养的过程。语言是通过刺激与反应学习的。对有选择的反应的强化是理解语言发展的关键。儿童学会正确的使用语言,是因为他们正确的言语是得到积极强化而错误的言语得到消极强化。
The Nativist view:
language acquisition is the species---specific property of human beings, children are born with an innate ability to acquire language ,they are predisposed to develop their native language along a universal, predetermined route through similar stages. They go about acquiring the grammar of their native language using principles unique to language acquisition.
语言习得是人类特有的特性。儿童生来就具有天生的学习语言的能力,他们生来就具有习得本族语的能力,其习得过程沿着一条普遍、自然的轨道,并经历相似的阶段。他们使用语言习得的特有天赋习得本族语的语法。
3.Discuss one major factor which contributes to the difficulties most second language learners encounter.
论述导致大多数第二语言学习者学习困难的一个主要因素。
It has been suggested by some SLA scholars that learning difficulties confronting adultL2 learners arise from the fact that for most people a second language is learned in a formal setting, rather han acquired in a natural environment .
Language acquisition is contrasted with language learning on the ground that acquisition is subconscious, focusing on meaning, which learning is conscious, focusing on form. Its argued that conscious knowledge of linguistic forms does not ensure acquisition of the rules, that is , does not ensure an immediate guidance for actual performance.
习得是无意识的,注重的是意义;学习是由意识的,注重的是形式。
4.Enumerate some causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition.列举第二语言习得中出现系统性错误的一些原因
Some major causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition include
(1)Interference from the mother tongue;母语干扰
(2)Interlingual interference within the target language;目标语的语际语干扰
(3)overgeneralization.过度概括
具体分析
Interference from the mother tongue:
Mother tongue interference is found at the level of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and meaning, and can be predicated by contrasting the grammatical or other systems of the native and target languages.
Interlingual interference:
Interlingual interference,or cross-association, occurs when the learner mixes rules and patterns of the target language and produce hybrid structures.
Overgeneralization:
The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern or rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations
课本外练习资料中的考点内容
一、定义
1.tone
Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.
2.Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when the frist language pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. it‘s commonly known as interference because it would lead to difficulties or errors in second language learning.
3.hapology
It refers to the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence,
For example, the old English word ‖engla-land‖(the land of Angles)came to be pronounced ―England‖ through the assimilation of ‖la-la‖ sounds.
4.relational opposites
Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.
5.语言判定Linguistic determinism
It refers to the fact that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on langauge, to put it more bluntly, language determines thought.
6.语调intonation
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
There are 4 types of intonation:
The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.
7.深层结构Deep structure
It‘s an abstract level representing the basis for the meaning of a sentence. it consists of a structure generated by phrase structure rules and contains lexical items from the lexcion, but no transformations have yet applied to it.
8.连字符Diacritics
Diacritics are a set of symbols that added to the letter symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible. Diacritics are only used in narrow transcription.
For example, in broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound[l ]in words like leaf
[li;f],feel[fi;l].
9.历史和比较语言学Historical and comparative linguistics
It‘s a study of ongoing changes that languages have undergone.
It‘s historical because it deals with the historical development of individual languages.
It‘s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among languages, classifying related languages into language families and reconstructing their ancestral languages.
10.正向转移Positive transfer
Transfer can be positive or negative,. Presumably, positive transfer occurs when a first language pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language.
例如,French people find no difficulty in learning the English word ‖table‖ cos it has the same meaning as the French word‖ table‖.
11.反向转移Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.反向转移即人们常说的干扰
干扰Interference
The effect of one‘s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.
12.人际交流Intrapersonal communication
It refers to one of the two major functions that language serves. as a means of intrapersonal communication, language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
二、问答题
1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?
Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings.
The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order.
2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?
Language is a rule-governed system.
Language is basically vocal.
Language is arbitrary.
Language is used for human communication.
3.what‘s Broca‘s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?
⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as Broca‘s area.
⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient‘s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.
⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax.
4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?
⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.
⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
⑶Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
⑷It‘s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, whi ch a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2learner.
⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.
5.suprasegmental features? how does it function in conveying meaning?
⑴ the phonological features that occur above the sound segmental level are called suprasegmental features.
⑵the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation.
⑶ The suprasegmental features distinguish meaning.
超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。
主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。
超切分特征区分意义。
6.what is the nature of language change in historical linguistics?
语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义?
⑴language change is inevitable.
⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar—in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.
⑷when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift.
7.What‘s the difference between the instrumental motivation and the integrative motivation of the learner‘s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点?
⑴usually, adults are motivated to learn a second language because of a communicative need, they may learn a second language in order to use it functionally when they intend to use it as an instrument for the purpose.
⑵in certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitations may count for more.
⑶when the target language functions as a foreign language ,the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation;
⑷but when the target language functions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective.
8.词素的类别和使用How many morphemes are there in the English language? state what they are and illustrate how they work?
⑴there are two: free and bound morphemes.
⑵free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
⑶bound morphemes are those that cant be used independently but have to combined with other morphemes.
⑷either free or bound, to form a word, it includes 2types:
A root is often seen as part of a word,it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
⑸Affixes are morphemes that are added to an already existing morpheme to form a new word while changing its meaning and grammatical relations. it consists of both inflectional and derivational affixes,
9.语言的两种功能two functions of language?
Two major functions are interpersonal and intrapersonal communication.
人际交流和自我交流
⑴ language functions as a means of interpersonal communication when language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to a nother or to control each other‘s behavior.
⑵ it functions as a means of intrapersonal communication when it is used as a means of facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
10.为什么说结构树形图比线形图可更好的说明句子的层次性?why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements?
⑴in addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.
线形结构无法解释或说明有歧义的句子。
⑵for example, the phrase ‖the old men and women‖ may have two interpretation. The adject ‖old‖ may modify the noun ‖men ‖,or the ―women‖. or both. linear order analysis cannot tell this difference, so it‘s ambiguous. the constituent of tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clea r.
11.音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related.
⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as [ u:],[ l ];
⑵A phoneme i s a phonological unit, it‘s not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, it‘s a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme[ l ] can be realized as a clear[ l ] or a dark [ l ],depending on where it occurs in a sound combination.
⑶The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones, allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.
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