《国际商务谈判》罗伊列维奇-原版-第十章

McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.CHAPTER10InternationalandCross-CulturalNegotiationMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.IntroductionWediscussthischapterbythefollowingmanner:Firstwediscusssomeofthefactorsthatmakeinternationalnegotiationdifferent.Thenweturntoadiscussionofthemostfrequentstudiedaspectofinternationalnegotiation.Nextweexaminetheinfluenceofcultureonnegotiations.Weconcludethischapterwithadiscussionofculturalresponsivestrategiesavailabletotheinternationalnegotiator.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Thetitles1.WhatMakesInternationalNegotiationDifferent?2.ConceptualizingCultureandNegotiation.3.TheInfluenceofCultureonNegotiation.(boththemanagerialperspectivesandtheresearchperspectives)4.CulturallyResponsiveNegotiationStrategies.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Environmentalcontext•Politicalandlegalpluralism•Internationaleconomics•Foreigngovernmentsandbureaucracies•Instability•Ideology•Culture•ExternalstakeholderImmediatecontext•Relativebargainingpower•Levelsofconflict•Relationshipbetweennegotiators•Desiredoutcomes•Immediatestakeholders1、Whatmakesinternationalnegotiationdifferent?McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.EnvironmentalcontextImmediatecontextNegotiationprocessandoutcomesRelativebargainingpowerofnegotiatorsandnatureofdependenceImmediatestakeholdersDesiredoutcomeofnegotiationsRelationshipbetweennegotiatorsbeforeandduringnegotiationLevelsofconflictunderlyingpotentialnegotiationsLegalpluralismPoliticalpluralismCurrencyfluctuationsandforeignexchangeForeignGovtandbureaucracyInstabilityandchangeIdeologicaldifferencesCulturaldifferencesExternalcontextFIGURE16.1ThecontextofinternationalnegotiationsMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Environmentalcontext•Politicalandlegalpluralism：TaxesthatanorganizationpaysLaborcodesorstandardsDifferentcodesofcontractlawandstandardsofenforcementPoliticalconsideration...•InternationaleconomicsTheexchangevalueofinternationalcurrenciesnaturallyfluctuatesAnychangeinthevalueofcurrencyMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Environmentalcontext•ForeigngovernmentsTheextenttothegovernmentregulatesindustriesandorganizations•InstabilityLackofresourcethatAmericancommonlyexpectduringbusinessnegotiation(paper,electricity,computers);shortageofothergoodsandservice(food,reliabletransportationpotablewater);andpoliticalinstability(coups,suddenshiftsingovernmentpolicy,majorcurrencyrevaluations)McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.EnvironmentalcontextSalacuse(1988)suggeststhatnegotiatorsfacingunstablecircumstanceshouldincludeclausesintheircontactsthatalloweasycancellationorneutralarbitration,andconsiderpurchasinginsurancepoliciestoguaranteecontractprovisions.•IdeologyIndividualismandcapitalismAmericansbelievestronglyinindividualrights,thesuperiorityofprivateinvestment,andtheimportanceofmakingaprofitinbusiness.Negotiatorsfromothercountriesdonotsharethisideology.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Environmentalcontext•CulturePeoplefromdifferentculturesappeartonegotiatedifferently,behavingdifferently,andmayalsointerpretthefundamentalprocessesofnegotiationsdifferently——deductiveorinductive•ExternalstakeholdersThevariouspeopleandorganizationsthathaveaninterestorstakeintheoutcomeofthenegotiation（byPhatakandHabib,1996）.Includebusinessassociations,laborunions,embassies,andindustryassociations,amongothers.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Immediatecontext•RelativebargainingpowerSomeoffactorsmayinfluencetherelativebargainingpower:Theamountofventure(financialandotherinvestment);Themanagementcontroloftheproject;Thespecialaccesstomarkets;distributionsystemsormanaginggovernmentrelations•LevelsofconflictThelevelofconflictandtypeofinterdependencebetweenthepartiestoacross-culturalnegotiationwillinfluencethenegotiationprocessandoutcome.Thosebasedonethnicity,identityorgeographyaremoredifficulttoresolveMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Immediatecontext•RelationshipbetweennegotiatorsThehistoryofrelationsbetweenthepartieswillinfluencethecurrentnegotiation,justasthecurrentnegotiationwillbecomepartofanyfuturenegotiationsbetweentheparties.•DesiredoutcomesSometangibleandintangiblefactorsplayalargeroleindeterminingtheoutcomesofinternationalnegotiations.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Immediatecontext•ImmediatestakeholdersItcontainsthenegotiatorsthemselvesandthepeopletheydirectlyrepresent,suchastheirmanagers,employersandboardsofdirectors.(PhatakandHabib,1996)McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Howdoweexplaininternationalnegotiationoutcomes?•Aswediscussedinfigure16.1,(themodelsfromPhatakandHabib).One-variableargumentscannotexplainconflictinginternationalnegotiationoutcomes.(Mayer1992)•Thenegotiationprocessesandoutcomesareinfluencedbymanyfactors,andthattheinfluenceofthesefactorscanchangeinmagnitudeovertime.Thechallengeforeveryinternationalnegotiatoristounderstandthesimultaneous,multipleinfluencesofseveralfactorsonthenegotiationprocessandoutcomeandtoupdatethisunderstandingregularlyascircumstancechange.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.2.ConceptualizingcultureandnegotiationFourwaystoconceptualizingcultureininternationalnegotiation:-CultureasLearnedBehavior-CultureasSharedValue-CultureasDialectic-CultureinContextMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved._CultureasLearnedBehaviorThisapproachtounderstandingtheeffectofculturedocumentsthesystematicnegotiationbehaviorofpeopleindifferentcultures.ItconcentratesoncreatingacatalogofbehavioratforeignnegotiatorsshouldexpectwhenenteringahostcultureMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved._CultureasSharedValueThisapproachtoconceptualizingcultureconcentratesonunderstandingcentralvaluesandnormandthenbuildingamodelforhowthesenormsandvaluesinfluencenegotiationwithinthatculture.GeertHofstede(1980a,1980b,1989,1991)conductedanextensiveprogramofresearchonculturaldimensionsininternationalbusinessandsuggestedthatfourdimensionscouldbeusedtodescribetheimportantdifferencesMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.amongthecultures:•Individualism/Collectivism;•PowerDistance;•CareerSuccess/QualityofLife;•UncertaintyAvoidance;McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.•Individualism/Collectivism;Individualisticsocietiesencouragetheiryoungtobeindependentandtolookafterthemselves.Collectivisticsocietiesintegrateindividualsintocohesivegroupsthattakeresponsibilityforthewelfareofeachindividual.Hofstedesuggestthatfocusonrelationshipsincollectivistsocietiesplaysacriticalroleinnegotiations,contrastthiswithindividualisticsocieties,inwhichnegotiatorsareconsideredinterchangeable,andcompetencyisanimportantconsiderationwhenchoosinganegotiation.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.•PowerDistanceThepowerdistancedimensiondescribes“theextenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersoforganizationandinstitutionsacceptandexpectthatpowerisdistributedunequally.”AccordingtoHofstede,cultureswithgreaterpowerdistancewillbemorelikelytoconcentratedecisionmakingattop,andallimportantdecisionswillhavetobefinalizedbytheleader..McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Cultureswithlowerpowerdistancearemorelikelytospreadthedecisionmakingthroughouttheorganization,andwhileleadersarerespected,itisalsopossibletoquestiontheirdecisions.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.•CareerSuccess/QualityofLifeAccordingtoHosstede(1989),thisdimensioninfluencesnegotiationbyincreasingthecompetitivenesswhennegotiatorsfromcareersuccessculturesmeet;negotiatorsfromqualityoflifeculturesaremorelikelythaveempathyfortheotherpartyandtoseekcompromise.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.•UncertaintyAvoidanceThisdimensionindicatestowhatextentacultureprogramsitsmemberstofeeleitheruncomfortableorcomfortableinunstructuredsituations.Negotiatorsfromhighuncertaintyavoidanceculturesarelesscomfortablewithambiguousandaremorelikelytoseekstablerulesandprocedureswhentheyarenegotiate.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Negotiatorsfromlowuncertaintyavoidanceculturesarelikelytoadapttoquicklychangingsituationsandwillbelessuncomfortablewhentherulesofthenegotiationareambiguousorshifting.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Shalomschwarz’s10culturalvaluesHeconcentratesonidentifyingmotivationalgoalunderlyingculturalvaluesandfound10values.These10valuesmayconflictorbecompatiblewitheachother.Healsoproposedthatthe10valuesmayberepresentedintwobipolardimensions:Opennesstochange/conservatismself-transcendence/self-enhancementMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Self-directionuniversalismBenevolenceconformityTraditionsecurityPowerAchievementHedonismSimulationOpennessTochangeSelf-transcendenceConservationSelf-enhancementFIGURE10.2Schwartz’s10culturalValuesMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved._CultureasDialecticJanosik(1987)recognizesthatallculturescontaindimensionsortensionsthatarecalleddialectics.Thisapproachhasadvantageovertheculture-as-shares-valuesapproachbecauseitcanexplainvariationswithincultures.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.-CultureinContextTinsley,Brett,Shapiro,andOkumura(2004)proposedculturalcomplexitytheoryinwhichtheysuggestthatculturalvalueswillhaveadirecteffectonnegotiationsinsomecircumstancesandamoderatedeffectinothers.Valuesareproposedtohaveadirectwhentheyhavestrongeffectsacrossseveraldifferentcontexts,whereasvaluesthathaveamoderatedeffectarethosethathavedifferentcontextualinstigatorsintheculture.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.3.TheInfluenceofCultureonNegotiation.(boththemanagerialandtheresearchperspectives)FIRST:ThemanagerialPerspectiveCulturaldifferenceshavebeensuggestedtoinfluencenegotiationinseveraldifferentways.Table10.2summarizes10differentwaysthatculturecaninfluencenegotiations.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.TABLE10.2TenWaysThatCultureCanInfluenceNegotiationNegotiationFactorsRangeofCulturalResponsesDefinitionofnegotiationContractRelationshipNegotiationopportunitySelectionofnegotiationsProtocolCommunicationTimesensitivityRiskpropensityGroupsversusindividualsNatureofagreementsEmotionalismDistributiveExpertsInformalDirectHighHighCollectivismSpecificHighIntegrativeTrustassociatesFormalIndirectLowLowIndividualismGeneralLowMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.SECOND:ResearchperspectiveAconceptualmodelofwhereculturemayinfluencenegotiationhasbeendevelopedbyJeanneBrett(2001).(seeFigure10.3)Hismodelidentifieshowthecultureofbothnegotiatorscaninfluencethesettingofprioritiesandstrategies,theidentificationofthepotentialforintegrativeagreement,andthepatternofinteractionbetweennegotiation.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.Brettsuggeststhatculturalvaluesshouldhavestrongeffectonnegotiationinterestsandpriorities,whileculturalnormswillinfluencenegotiationstrategiesandthepatternofinteractionbetweennegotiatorswillalsobeinfluencedbythepsychologicalprocessesofnegotiators,andculturehasaninfluenceontheseprocesses.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.FIGURE10.3HowCultureAffectsNegotiationInterestsandprioritiesCultureAnegotiatorStrategiesPotentialforIntegrativeagreementTypeofagreementPatternofinteractionInterestsandprioritiesCultureBnegotiatorStrategiesMcGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.4.CulturallyResponsiveNegotiationStrategiesNegotiatorsshouldbeawareoftheeffectsofculturaldifferencesonnegotiationandtotakethemintoaccountwhentheynegotiate.StephenWeiss(1994)hasproposedausefulwayofthinkingabouttheoptionswehavewhennegotiatingwithsomeonefromanotherculture.Weiss’sculturallyresponsivestrategiesmaybearrangesintothreegroups,basedontheleveloffamiliarity(low,moderate,high)thatnegotiatorhaswiththeotherparty’sculture.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.LowfamiliarityEmployAgentsorAdvisers(UnilateralStrategy)Thisrelationshipmayrangefromhavingtheotherpartyconductthenegotiationsundersupervision(agent)toreceivingregularoroccasionaladviceduringthenegotiationBringinaMediator(JointStrategy)Interpreterswilloftenplaythisrole,providingbothpartieswithmoreinformationthanthemeretranslationofwords.Mediatorsmayencourageonesideortheothertoadoptoneculture’sapproachesorathirdcultureapproach.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.ModerateFamiliarityAdapttotheOtherNegotiator’sApproach(UnilateralStrategy)Thisstrategyinvolvesnegotiatorsmakingconsciouschangestotheirapproachsothatitismoreappealingtotheotherparty.Ratherthantryingtoactliketheotherparty,negotiatorsusingthisstrategymaintainafirmgraspontheirownapproachbutmakemodificationtohelprelationswiththeotherperson.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.CoordinateAdjustment(JointStrategy)Thisstrategyinvolvesbothpartiesmakingmutualadjustmentstofindacommonprocessfornegotiation.Usingthisstrategyrequiresamoderateamountofknowledgeabouttheotherparty’scultureandatleastsomefacilitywithhisorherlanguage.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.HighFamiliarityEmbracetheOtherNegotiator’sApproach(UnilateralStrategy)Thisstrategyinvolvesadoptingcompletelytheapproachoftheothernegotiator,thenegotiatorneedtobecompletelybilingualandbicultural.ImproviseanApproach(JointStrategy)Tousethisapproach,bothpartiestothenegotiationneedtohavehighfamiliaritywiththeotherparty’scultureandastrongunderstandingoftheindividualcharacteristicsoftheothernegotiator.McGraw-Hill/Irwin©2004TheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.,AllRightsReserved.EffectSymphony(JointStrategy)Thisstrategyallowsnegotiatorstocreateanewapproachthatmayincludeaspectsofeitherhomecultureoradoptpracticesfromathirdculture.