礼貌原则 英语

*PolitenessTheoryShortrecap:Grice’smeaning-nnsplitupinwhatissaidandwhatisimplicatzed(i.e.truth-conditionalandnon-truth-conditional)Conventionallyimplicated:notbythemaximsoftheCP,e.g.but,however,socialdeicticsConversationallyimplicated:bythemaximsoftheCPgenerally:inallcontexts:e.g.quantityimplicaturesparticularly:onlyinspecificcontexts,byobserving(themilkmanhascome)orbyflouting(metaphors,irony)*BacktoGrice’sCP A:We’llallmissRobinHarrandBob,won’twe? B:Well,we’llallmissRobinHarr.* Leech(1983)definesPOLITENESSasformsofbehaviorwhichareaimedattheestablishmentandmaintenanceofcomity,i.e.,theabilityofparticipantsinasocial-communicativeinteractiontoengageininteractionatanatmosphereofrelativeharmony.*Leech’sPolitenessPrincipleMinimize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofimpolitebeliefsandMaximize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofpolitebeliefs.Leech’sPPnotjustanaddition,butanecessarycomplementation,neededforthecaseswheretheCPfailstoofferareasonableexplanation.RefertoReader*The6maximsofLeech’sPPvsvs*Leech’sPolitenessPrinciple TactMaxim(inimpositives/directivesandcommissives)a.Minimizecosttootherb.Maximizebenefittoother GenerosityMaxim(inimpositives/directivesandcommissives)a.Minimizebenefittoselfb.MaximizecosttoselfMaximofTactandGenerosity(indirectivesandcommissives)directives:intendedtoproducesomeeffect(ordeingr,commanding,requesting,advising,recommending)bydefinitionviolatesTactMaxcommissives:commitStosomefutureaction:promise,vow,offerUseOHP“Politenessscales”*ExamplesTakeaseat./Haveabanana.Waitasecond.Couldyousharpenthesepencils,please.(lesspolite)Couldthesepencilsbesharpened,please.(morepolite)-----------------------------------------------Icanofferyoumycarifyouneedit.YoucanoffermeyourcarbecauseIneeditIcandropyouintownifyoulike.Youcandropmeintown. MaximsoftactandgenerosityGuYueguo(1990)’srevision: TheTactMaxim(inimpositives)(i)Atthemotivationallevel(a)Minimizecosttoother(includingcontent-andmanner-regulatingsenses)(ii)Attheconversationallevel(a)Maximizebenefitreceived TheGenerosityMaxim(incommissives)(i)Atthemotivationallevel(a)Maximizebenefittoother(includingcontent-andmanner-regulatingsenses)(ii)Attheconversationallevel(a)Minimizecosttoself**Politenessscale:Cost–benefit(havetodowithcontent-regualting) Haveanothersandwich. Enjoyyourholiday. Lookatthat. Sitdown. Handmethenewspaper. Peelthesepotatoes.benefittohcosttoh*Politenessscale:Directness/optionality(havetodowithmanner-regualting)Couldyoupossiblyanswerthephone?Wouldyoumindansweringthephone?Canyouanswerthephone?Willyouanswerthephone?Iwantyoutoanswerthephone.Answerthephone.indirectdirect* ApprobationMaxim(inexpressivesandassertives)a.Minimizedispraiseofotherb.Maximizepraiseofother Maximofmodesty(inexpressivesandassertives) a.Minimizepraiseofself b.MaximizedispraiseofselfSource:Leech1983:81,132.Maximofapprobationandmodestyinexpressivesandassertivesexpressives:expressS’spsychologicalattitudetowardsastateofaffairs:thanking,congratulating,pardoning,blaming,praising,condolingassertives:commitStothetruthoftheexpressedproposition,e.g.stating,suggesting,boasting,complaining,claiming,reportingMaximofAgreementMaximofSympathySpeech-regulatingA:Icandropyouintownifyoulike.B:It’sverykindofyou,butitwillcauseyousomeinconvenience,won’tit?A:No,notatall.I’mgoinginthatdirection.B:Thankyouverymuch.**Examples Whatamarvelousmealyoucooked!Whatanawfulmealyoucooked!A: ThisisoneofthebestarticlesI’veeverread.B: Yes,it’sbrilliant,isn’tit?我这个大老粗，不会说话。 Maximsofapprobationandmodesty*Leech’sPolitenessPrinciple AgreementMaxima.Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandotherb.Maximizeagreementbetweenselfandother Yes/Right/Ithinkso./Me,too./Can’tagreemore.Source:Leech1983:81,132.Maximofapprobationandmodestyinexpressivesandassertivesexpressives:expressS’spsychologicalattitudetowardsastateofaffairs:thanking,congratulating,pardoning,blaming,praising,condolingassertives:commitStothetruthoftheexpressedproposition,e.g.stating,suggesting,boasting,complaining,claiming,reportingMaximofAgreementMaximofSympathy*Partialagreement/tokenagreementA:That’swhereyoulive,Florida?B:That’swhereIwasborn.A:Youhateyourmomanddad..B:Sometimes.A:Haveyougotfriends?B:Ihavefriends.So-calledfriends.Ihadfriends.Letmeputthatway.*Leech’sPolitenessPrinciple SympathyMaxima.Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandotherb.MaximizesympathybetweenselfandotherSource:Leech1983:81,132.Maximofapprobationandmodestyinexpressivesandassertivesexpressives:expressS’spsychologicalattitudetowardsastateofaffairs:thanking,congratulating,pardoning,blaming,praising,condolingassertives:commitStothetruthoftheexpressedproposition,e.g.stating,suggesting,boasting,complaining,claiming,reportingMaximofAgreementMaximofSympathy*Politeness:ExamplesI’mterriblysorrytohearaboutyourcat.I’mdelightedtohearaboutyourcat. Maximofsympathy*Reminder TactMaxim>GenerosityMaxim ApprobationMaxim>ModestyMaxim Submaxim-a>Submaxim-b Illocutionarygoalsvs.socialgoals---politeness Competitiveacts:requesting,ordering,refusing,etc. Convivialacts:offering,inviting,thanking,etc. Collaborativeacts:reporting,instructing,etc. Conflictiveacts:threatening,cursing,etc.*Clashandtradeoffbetweenmaxims A:Whatanicejumperyou’rewearing. B:Oh,it’saveryoldone. A:Whatanicejumperyou’rewearing. B:Yes,it’sbeautiful,isn’tit? ModestyandagreementSource:Leech1983:136f*A:My,whatasplendidgardenyouhavehere-thelawnissoniceandbig,it’scertainlywonderful,isn’tit?B:Ohno,notatall,wedon’ttakecareofitatallanymore,soitsimplydoesn’tlookasniceaswewouldlikeitto.A:Ohno,Idon’tthinksoatall-butsinceit’ssuchabiggarden,ofcourse,itmustbequiteatremendoustasktotakecareofitallbyyourself;butevenso,youcertainlydomanagetomakeitlookniceallthetime:itcertainlyisniceandprettyanytimeoneseesit.B:No.I’mafraidnot,notatall...Source:Leech1983:136f*Whentwomaximscomeintoconflict,wehavetoallowonemaximtotakepriorityovertheother.Intheaboveexample,theJapanesewomanputModestyMaximatapriorpositionoverAgreementMaxim,whileEnglish-speakerswouldbeinclinedtofindsomecompromisebetweenviolatingtheModestyMaximandviolatingtheAgreementMaxim.*ThegreatervalueattachedtotheModestyMaximinJapanesecultureisindicatedfurtherbythegreaterdegreeofunderstatementemployedingivingpresents.AnEnglishpersonmaycallhisgift“small”,theJapanesemaygofurther,andsay:“Thisisagiftwhichwillbeofnousetoyou,……”(ModestyMoverruleQualityM)Ahostmayevengototheextremeofdenyingtheexistenceofthefoodheisoffering:“Thereisnothing(toeat),butplease……” (ModestyMaximoverruleQualityMaxim)*Clashbetweenmaxims Quantityandagreement A:Thiswasamarvellousconcert. B:Well,thefirstpiecewasquitenice.*PragmaticParadoxParadoxarisesfromtheconflictof2maxims,herefromtheconflictoftheModestyandApprobationMaxims,justasitmayarisefromtheconflictofTactandGenerosityMaximswhenanoffer/invitationisrepeatedlydeclined.Inthiscase,thepragmaticparadoxtakestheformofrepeatedlydenyingthetruthofacompliment.*Trade-offbetweendifferentmaximsA:Youweresokindtous.B:Yes,Iwas,wasn’tI.Inofferingfoodtoaguest,aJapanesemaysay:Pleasehaveone!(thissentenceapparentlyminimizesgenerosity,butattachgreaterimportancetomodesty:tooffermorethanoneistosuggestthatone’sfoodiswortheating.)* ImplicationorApplication   Cross-culturalpragmatics(Thomas,1995) AlotofresearchhasbeenmadeintotheculturaldifferencesinobservingLeech’sPolitenessPrincipleandthosespeechactsthatarecloselyrelatedtopoliteness,suchasrequest,apology,compliment,refusal,etc. Interlanguagepragmatics Researchhasbeendoneinthedifferenceinidentifyingpolitenessscalebetweennativesandsecondlanguagelearners.*CriticismofPPLeech’smodelhasattractedalotofcriticism.Ithasmainlybeencensuredfortheunlimitednumberofmaximswhichcanbeproducedtoexplaineveryperceivedregularityinlanguageuse(cf.Barron2003:17;Spencer-Oatey2000b:39;Thomas1995:167).ThismakesLeech’sapproach“atbestinelegant,atworstvirtuallyunfalsifiable”(Thomas1995:167). Thesixmaximsarenotsetaccordingtothesamecriteria,someforpolitebehavior,someforpolitespeech.** Furthermore,empiricalresearchhasrevealedthatthereisnotalwaysapositivecorrelationbetweenpolitenessandindirectness(cf.Blum-Kulka1987:136ff.;Blum-Kulka1990:269ff.;Held1996:78),makingLeech’sequationofindirectnessandpolitenessuntenable. Moreover,Kasper(1990)criticizestheconversational-maximviewforitslackofanyempiricalbasis(Kasper1990:194),andissupportedbyWattsetal.(1992:7)andTaylorandCameron(1987:97)whojudgeLeech’stheorytobetootheoreticaltoapplytoreallanguage.AfinalcriticalaspectconcernsLeech’snarrowfocusonthepolitesideoflanguageandhisneglectofalltypesofuncooperativecommunication(cf.Trosborg1995:25).*Politenessisculture-specific Politenessisuniversal,i.e.itcanbeobservedasaphenomenoninallcultures Despiteitsuniversalitytheactualmanifestationsofpoliteness,thewaystorealizepoliteness,andthestandardsofjudgmentdifferindifferentcultures.*Leech,1983 Someeasterncultures(e.g.ChinaandJapan)tendtovaluetheModestyMaximmuchmorehighlythanWesterncountries. English-speakingculture(particularlyBritish?)givesprominencetotheMaximofTact. MediterraneanculturesplaceahighervalueontheGenerosityMaximandalowvalueontheModestyMaxim.*DifferencesinPolitenessBetweenEnglishandChineseCultureModesty A:Yournewskirtisverybeautiful. B:Thankyou! 外国客人：你的工作做得很好。 中国服务员：不，我的工作还有许多缺点。*Modesty:Respondingtocompliments Whenbeingcomplimented,anEnglish-speakingpersonwouldreadilyacceptthecomplimentbysayingsomethinglike“Thankyou”toshowhisappreciationofthepraise. AChinesespeakerwouldtrytodenythetruthofthecompliment.Self-denigrationhasbeenatthecoreofChinesenotionofpolitenessforovertwothousandyears. Theybotharebeingmodestandtheyboththinktheyarebehavingproperly.*StudiesofPolitenessinChina 徐盛桓，礼貌原则新拟 （外语学刊，1992/2） Gu,Yueguo,PolitenessphenomenainmodernChinese.JournalofPragmatics,1990:14,237-257. 顾曰国，礼貌，语用与文化 （外语教学与研究，1992/4）*注意交际者身份，促进各方关系，注重得体性。1．注意自身一方（1）适合自己身份地位的话，不说不适合自己身份地位的话。（2）说话通常倾向于较为谦逊。徐盛桓教授的模式*2.尊重对方（1）说适合对方身份地位的话，不说不适合对方身份地位的话。（2）对于对方，话语通常倾向于较为尊重或客气，尊重客气的程度 （i）同对方尊长或同他们跟自己疏远的程度成正比。 （ii）同对方付出的代价的程度成正比。 （iii）同对方要求他人付出的代价成反比。*A:Excuseme,butwouldyoupleasetellmehowtogettoMartinPlace?”B:Well,gostraight,andthenturnleft.Youwon’tmissit.*3.考虑第三方 充分注意到交际时在场的第三方，不说影响到他们身份地位的话。如果有需要，可以说适合他们身份地位的话。 充分注意话语中提及的第三方，不说影响到他们身份地位的话，如果有需要，可以说适合他们身份地位的话。*Example Severalladiesandgentlemenareattendingadinnerparty.Attheendofit,Mr.Liucomments,“Ah,MissLiisthemostbeautifulgirltonight.”*FournotionsunderlyingtheChineseconceptionof“limao”(Gu,1990): Respectfulness:appreciationoradmirationofother(concerningthelatter’sface,socialstatus…)[largelyidenticalwiththeneedtomaintainthehearer’spositiveface] Modesty/Self-denigration[thoughvaryingintheimportanceattachedtoitindifferentcultures,istoalargeextentuniversal;buttointerpretitasself-denigrationisuniquelyChinese] Attitudinalwarmth:demonstrationofkindness,consideration,hospitalitytoother[bearsastrongChinesetraitfordemonstratingkindnessandconsiderationandhospitality,thespeakerrunstheriskofinfringingonthehearer’spersonalfreedom,thusthreateninghisnegativeface] Refinement:self’sbehaviortootherwhichmeetscertainstandards[representsthenormativecharacterofpoliteness,which,thoughuniversal,hasnotbeenmentionedinanyimportanttheoryconcerningpolitenessraisedbywesternscholarssofar]GuYueguo’ssetofpolitenessmaxims*ThisformulationhasintegratedcertainfeaturesuniversallyrecognizedintheconceptionofpolitenessinvariousculturesandcertainfeaturessomuchemphasizedintheChinesecultureastobealmostuniquelyChinese.* “自卑而尊人”与贬己尊人 准则 租赁准则应用指南下载租赁准则应用指南下载租赁准则应用指南下载租赁准则应用指南下载租赁准则应用指南下载 (Themaximofdenigratingoneselfandelevatingtheothers) 上下有义，贵贱有分，长幼有等”与称呼准则(Addressingmaxim) 彬彬有礼”与文雅准则(Refinementmaxim) “脸”“面子”与求同准则(Agreement-seekingmaxim) “有德者必有言与德、言、行准则”(Virtue,speechandactmaxim)PolitenessmaximsspecifictoChina(Gu,1992)*ThetraditionofhumblingoneselfandhonoringothersliesattheverycoreofChinesewayofpoliteness.Inmoderntimes,self-denigrationandself-effacingtaketheplaceofhumblingoneself.Themaximofself-denigrationandother-respectingrequiresthatoneshouldbemodestandhumbleinaddressingoneselfandthingsrelatedtooneself.Ontheotherhand,whenoneaddressingahearerandthingsrelatedtothehearer,heshouldtrytoelevateandhonorthehearer.e.g.鄙人，小弟您老，阁下小儿，小女令郎，令爱愚见，拙见高见，尊意“自卑而尊人”与贬己尊人准则*上下有义，贵贱有分，长幼有等”与称呼准则Thismaximmanifestsitselfinthewayofaddressing,whichshowsthesocialrelationbetweenpeople,andthechangeofwhichmoreorlessindicatesthevariationsinpeople'srelationship.e.g.姓+老师（学生对老师），老先生（对长者），小朋友（对小孩），大使夫人您好（不说大使老婆你好）Therefore,addressingmaximmeansgreetotherswithappropriateterms.*Refinementmaximdemandstheuseofrefinedstatementandavoidanceofvulgarspeech,andalsodemandsmorefrequentuseofeuphemismsinsteadofdirectwayofspeaking.彬彬有礼”与文雅准则*Virtue,speechandactmaximmeanstryingeverymeanstominimizethecostofothersandmaximizethebenefitsofotherswhenmeaningtodosomething;tryeverymeanstooverstateone'sbenefitsandunderstateone'scost.甲：鸡我帮你买。乙：行吗？太麻烦你了。你不是要到邮局去吗？甲：顺便。放在车篓里，又不费事。乙：那太谢谢你了。“有德者必有言与德、言、行准则”*Theso-calledagreement-seekingmaximdenotesthatboththespeakerandthehearerseekagreementwitheachotherinmanyrespectsandtrytheirbesttomeetthedesireoftheotherside.Forexample,whenonehastoscoldothersorairdifferentview,theytendtopraisetheothersidebeforespeakingouthisdisagreement.Inmakingarequest,whichisnotimpoliteinnature,oneexposeshisfeelingtothehearer.“脸”、“面子”与求同准则 ChenXinren:Normativepolitenessvsstrategicpoliteness,in“Polysemous”Politeness:Speaker Self-referringFormsinHonglouMeng,inYulingPan&DánielZ.Kádár(eds.),ChineseDiscourseandInteraction,EQUINOX,LONDON MichaelHaugh,Anticipatedpolitenessversusinferredpoliteness,Multilingua22,4:397-413* ChaoqunXie,ZiranHe,&DajinLin,Politeness:mythandtruth,StudiesinLanguage,Volume29,No.2,2005,pp.285-551.**NewDevelopment Politeness:IsThereanEast-WestDivide <<外国语>>2005年06期*GrandStrategyofPoliteness(GSP):Inordertobepolite,SexpressesorimpliesmeaningswhichplaceahighvalueonwhatpertainstoO(O=otherperson[s],[mainlytheaddressee])orplacealowvalueonwhatpertainstoS(S=self,speaker)GSPas‘super-maxim’or‘super-constraint’*Sub-constraints(asopposedto‘maxims’)withvariableconstrainingpower PlaceahighvalueonO’swantsPlacealowvalueonS’swants PlaceahighvalueonO’squalitiesPlacealowvalueonS’squalities PlaceahighvalueonS’sobligationtoOPlacealowvalueonO’sobligationtoS PlaceahighvalueonO’sopinionsPlacealowvalueonS’sopinions PlaceahighvalueonO’sfeelingsPlacealowvalueonS’sfeelings*Leechsaysnototheso-calledWesternbiasinBrownandLevinson'stheory,particularlyintheirindividualisticandegalitarianmotivations,asopposedtothemoregroup-centeredhierarchy-basedethosofEasternsocieties.*Assignment Designaresearchprojectrelatedtoyourfieldofspecialization,usingPPasyourtheoreticalframework.Shortrecap:Grice’smeaning-nnsplitupinwhatissaidandwhatisimplicatzed(i.e.truth-conditionalandnon-truth-conditional)Conventionallyimplicated:notbythemaximsoftheCP,e.g.but,however,socialdeicticsConversationallyimplicated:bythemaximsoftheCPgenerally:inallcontexts:e.g.quantityimplicaturesparticularly:onlyinspecificcontexts,byobserving(themilkmanhascome)orbyflouting(metaphors,irony)Leech’sPPnotjustanaddition,butanecessarycomplementation,neededforthecaseswheretheCPfailstoofferareasonableexplanation.RefertoReaderMaximofTactandGenerosity(indirectivesandcommissives)directives:intendedtoproducesomeeffect(ordeingr,commanding,requesting,advising,recommending)bydefinitionviolatesTactMaxcommissives:commitStosomefutureaction:promise,vow,offerUseOHP“Politenessscales”Maximofapprobationandmodestyinexpressivesandassertivesexpressives:expressS’spsychologicalattitudetowardsastateofaffairs:thanking,congratulating,pardoning,blaming,praising,condolingassertives:commitStothetruthoftheexpressedproposition,e.g.stating,suggesting,boasting,complaining,claiming,reportingMaximofAgreementMaximofSympathyMaximofapprobationandmodestyinexpressivesandassertivesexpressives:expressS’spsychologicalattitudetowardsastateofaffairs:thanking,congratulating,pardoning,blaming,praising,condolingassertives:commitStothetruthoftheexpressedproposition,e.g.stating,suggesting,boasting,complaining,claiming,reportingMaximofAgreementMaximofSympathyMaximofapprobationandmodestyinexpressivesandassertivesexpressives:expressS’spsychologicalattitudetowardsastateofaffairs:thanking,congratulating,pardoning,blaming,praising,condolingassertives:commitStothetruthoftheexpressedproposition,e.g.stating,suggesting,boasting,complaining,claiming,reportingMaximofAgreementMaximofSympathySource:Leech1983:136fSource:Leech1983:136f