英汉互译的相关知识

The Comparison between English and Chinese and Countermeasures 1. Synthetic VS. Analytic(综合语和 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 语) English is a synthetic-analytic language. While Chinese is a typical analytic language. 1.1 Inflectional VS. Non-inflectional In English, nouns, pronouns, and verbs are inflected. In Chinese, the grammatical meanings are mostly implied in contexts or between the lines, through often with the help of word order and function (or other) words. 1.2 Word Order: Flexible VS. Inflexible The infection of a language has much to do with the position of words in the sentence. The less inflective a language, the more rigid the word order. Hence word order in English is not so rigid as in Chinese. More ways of inversion, grammatical or rhetorical are often seen in English. 1.3 The Use of Function Words: English and Chinese Make Use of Different Types of Function Words English function words include the articles, preposition, auxiliary verbs, coordinators and subordinators, while Chinese function words include particles, connectives, and prepositions. Each has its own features in the use of these words. Chinese is rich in particles, which can be classified into aspect particles, structural particles, and emotional particles. English has a large number of prepositions and prepositional phrases which are often in use, while Chinese has a few prepositions which are mostly“borrowed” from their corresponding verbs. A conversion of English prepositions into Chinese verb is often necessary. It frequently uses its various connectives, coordinating or subordinating, including conjunctive and relative pronouns or adverbs. Chinese has no such kind of conjunctives and relatives, and other connectives are not often used, except in formal writings. 1.4 Intonation VS. Tone English is an intonation language while Chinese is a tone language. One of the important features in modern Chinese is the predominance of disyllables and quadrisyllables over monosyllables and trisyllables. Countermeasures： Inversion(倒置法) E.g. what in the world do you mean?     你的意思究竟是什么啊？ When expressing temporal or logical sequences, English may make full use of inflections and function words to make its word order flexible, while Chinese, with the help of function words, arranges its word order according to certain rules of temporal or logical sequences. Translation of long sentence(长句译法) we have to begin with a careful analysis of a long and complex sentence in the light of the context so as to understand clearly: (1) what the author is driving at; (2) what his argument or views are, and what "logic sequence" there is in the original; (3) what grammatical relations there are among the three, four, five, or even more "modifiers" in the long sentence to be translated. E.g. Category two contains only four items, and I shall say no more about them except  that, since they are under consideration, we should not let the grass grow under feet, but attempt, as early as possible, to arrive at a common understanding in the interest of humanity. 这是一个并列复合句，包孕多个修饰语和从句，借助虚词和形态变化，按照英语的表达习惯，把五层意思连接起来。汉语要表达相同的意思，必须按照汉语的思维习惯重新安排，拆成七个部分，组成三句话。 第二类只包括四项内容，而且都已在审议中。为了人类的利益，我们应该不失时机，力图尽快达成共识。除此之外，别的我就不多说了。 2. Rigid VS. Supple(刚性与柔性) The rigidity of the English language generally requires a complete sentence structure, S-V concord, and formal cohesion, while the suppleness of Chinese enjoys flexibility of sentence structure and pays more attention to semantic coherence. English sentence can be summarized as SV, SVP, SVO, SVoO, SVOC OR their variants, expansion, combination, omission, or inversion. English subject-predicate structure appears rigid as of certain grammatical bonds, including the patternization and the principles of grammatical and notional concord. Chinese, however, is relatively free from the government of S-V concord and formal markers. The subject-predicate structure is usually varied, flexible, and therefore complicated and supple. There are quite a few “illogical” expressions in Chinese. More ambiguity can be found in Chinese due to the lack of connectives inflections and other grammatical markers. 3. Hypotactic VS. Paratactic(形合与意合) English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis. To clarify the relations between words, phrases or clauses, English more often resorts to over cohesion. By contrast, Chinese more frequently relies on covert and context, focusing on temporal or logical sequences. Instead of using various cohesive ties such as relatives, connectives and prepositions as in English, Chinese more often resorts to word order, contracted sentences, four-character expressions and some grammatical or rhetorical devices such as repetition, antithesis, and parallelism. Countermeasures： Omission(省略法) & Condensation(缩译法) E.g. We will not attack unless we are attacked.     人（若）不犯我，我（则）不犯人。     Until all is over, ambition never dies.     不到黄河心不死。 4. Complex VS. Simplex (反复与简短) English sentence- building is characterized by an “architecture style” with extensive use of longer or subordinate structures, while Chinese, a “chronicle style” with frequent use of shorter or composite structures. In a word, English sentences are often complex while Chinese sentences are often simplex. Countermeasures： Division(拆译法) & Translation of long sentence(长句译法) E.g. In the doorway lay at least twelve umbrellas of all sizes and colors.     门口放着一堆雨伞，少说也有十二把，五颜六色，大小不一。   （Cf.门口放着至少有十二把五颜六色、大小不一的雨伞。） 5. Impersonal VS. Personal (物称与人称) Formal written English often goes with an impersonal style. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns as subjects. Chinese, by contrast, prefers to use a personal style, which is featured by much more actives or actives in form but passives in sense, personal subjects, or subjectless and subject-omitted sentences when the subject is self-evident, unknown or implied in the context. Countermeasures： Conversion (转换法) E.g. An idea suddenly struck me.     我突然想到了一个主意。 6. Passive VS. Active (被动与主动) Passives of various forms are frequently used in English mainly due to the following reasons: 1. When the agent of an action is self-evident or unknown, or it is unnecessary or impossible to mention the agent, e.g. the murderer was caught yesterday, and it is said that he will be hanged. 2. Syntactic factors: for cohesion, balance, end focus, end weighet, etc. e.g. I was astounded that he was prepared to give me a job. 3. Rhetorical factors: for variation, etc. e.g. There are many ways to vary the basic English sentence pattern of subject-verb-object. 4. Stylistic factors: more passives in informative writing, notably in the objective, nonpersonal style of scientific articles, news items, and government communications. Countermeasures： 1. Converting the passive voice into the active 2. Converting the passive voice into a subjectless sentence Omission of the subject is one of the typical features of Chinese syntax. Therefore, in the practice of English-Chinese translation, we may translate the passive voice into a Chinese subjectless sentence. 3. Keeping the passive structure unchanged Sometimes, we may keep the passive voice unchanged, especially when it comes to something unpleasant. 4. replacing the passive voice with other means In some cases, however, the passive voice in English cannot be rendered into good Chinese by any of the above means. Therefore, it is up to the translator to adjust or remold the whole structure, trying to find a readable and smooth Chinese version. 7. Static VS. Dynamic(静态与动态) English is featured by its predominance of nouns over verbs. English makes more use of nouns, adjectives, and prepositions, and is therefore more static. Conversely, Chinese often employs verbs, adverbs, verbal phrases, repetition and reduplication of verbs, and is therefore more dynamic. E.g. He is a good eater and a good sleeper.     他能吃能睡。 8. Abstract VS. Concrete (抽象与具体) In English, nominalization often results in abstraction. An excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done, and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. This method of abstract diction is found in the frequent use of abstract nouns. By contrast, Chinese prefers to use concrete or specific words and employs a “down-to-earth style”, expressing abstract ideas often by metaphors, similes, allegories, or other devices for making a thing plain. 9. Indirect VS. Direct (间接和直接) The wider use of such devices as euphemism, understatement, litotes, indirect negation, periphrasis as well as the impersonal style and abstract diction makes English more indirect than Chinese. 1. Euphemism (委婉) Compared with Chinese, English euphemism is widely used in all kinds of subjects, covering taboo, privacy, and other different aspects of social life, such as religion, birth, death, sex, love, age, disease, money, poverty, crime, profession, commerce, advertisement, education, politics, economy, war, diplomacy, etc. 2. Understatement (克制陈述) A statement which is not strong enough to express the full or true facts or feelings i.e. makes big things seem trifle, particularly common in English, is known an understatement. 3. Litotes (间接肯定) Litotes is a way of expressing a thought by its opposite, esp. with “not” as in “not bad” and “no” as in “no small”, “no easy”. Chinese has similar litotes as “未尝不可”, “不虚此行”, “避免错误”, and “不无遗憾”, but prefers to use direct affirmatives for the English litotes. 4. Indirect Negation(间接否定) A strange feature of the syntax of subordination in colloquial English is the transfer of the negative from a subordinate that- clause, where semantically it belongs, to the main clause, e.g. “ I don’t think he will come” instead of “ I think he will not come”. Chinese prefers direct negation “我想他不会来” instead of “我不想他会来”. Other ways of using affirmative forms to express negative meanings are often found in implied subjunctive, disjunctive questions, ellipsis, swearwords, and ironical idioms. 5. Tactful Implication(婉转暗示) English speakers are often careful not to cause offence or upset people in their expressions, which leave gaps in the development of thoughts. 6. Periphrasis (迂回) Chinese generally prefers to be straightforward. Compared with English, Chinese has less indirect modes of expression as the above, but other means such as polite expressions and self-depreciatory expressions are often used, especially in classical or early Chinese. Countermeasures： Negation (反译法) E.g. To my no small astonishment, I found the house on fire.     我发现房子着火了，这使我大吃一惊。     I couldn’t feel better.    我觉得身体好极了。 In most cases, this negative expressions can be translated literally, but in some circumstances, they should be readjusted according to different context: 1. Affirmative in English, but negative in Chinese Such cases are found in a wide range of scope: words of different parts of speech, various phrases, or sentence structures. E.g. He denied it to be the case. (v.)     他说事实不是这样。 2. Negative in english, but affirmative in Chinese This case is just opposite to the previous one. E.g. The doubt was still unresolved after his repeated explanation. (adj.)     经他一再解释，疑团仍然存在。 3. Same English word, either affirmative or negative equivalents in Chinese E.g. I am new to the work.     这工作我不熟悉。 4. Double negative for emphasis Double negative in English, as in Chinese, is used for emphasis. In this case we may either drop both the negative words or keep to the original, depending on which version is idiomatic in Chinese. E.g. There is no rule that has no exception.     任何工作都无不例外。 5. Roundabout affirmative This is an indirect way of expressing a strong affirmative, and when translated into Chinese, the emotion of the original should be properly kept. E.g. He didn't half like the girl.     他非常喜欢那姑娘。 10. Substitutive VS. Repetitive (替换与重复) Repetition of words in English is generally more or less abnormal and objectionable except that it is rhetorical or significant. To avoid repetition, English often employs substitution, ellipsis, variation, and some other devices. 1. Substitution (替代) English generally uses pro-forms or substitutes to avoid repetition, while Chinese often repeats the same words or clauses substituted. 2. Ellipsis (省略) English usually leaves out the same words form a sentence to avoid repetition, while Chinese often repeats the same words. 3. Variation (变换) English often uses synonyms or near-synonyms, superordinates, hyponyms or general words to avoid repetition, while Chinese usually repeats the same words. Chinese however, is more tolerant of repetition. Reiterative devices such as reduplication, repetition, antithesis and parallelism are often used in Chinese. 4. Reduplication (重叠) Chinese often employs various patterns of character-reduplication for rhetorical or other purpose, while English has much less this kind of device. 5. Repetition (重复) Compared with English repetition that is generally rhetorical, Chinese repetition of words or meaning is rhetorical or grammatical, and is much more frequent. 6. antithesis and Parallelism (对比与排比) Chinese antithesis consists of two balanced structures that are matched in sound and sense; parallelism uses three or more parallel phrases or sentence of relevant meaning and similar structures. In writing and speaking, these two rhetorical devices are much more used in Chinese than in English. Countermeasures： Addition (增补法) E.g. The road was packed with a noisy crowd of men and women, who were selling     and buying all kinds of things.                                                                                                      路上挤满了男男女女，他们熙熙攘攘，正在买卖各种各样的东西。 Repetition (重复法)      E.g. We must not pretend to known when we do not know. 不懂就是不懂，不要装懂。 Additions in English-Chinese translation: 1. Putting in words omitted in the original E.g. Matter can be changed into energy, and energy into matter.     物质可以转化为能量，能量也能转化为物质。 2. Putting in necessary connectives E.g. Heated, water will change into vapor.     水如受热，就会汽化。 3. Putting in words to convey the concept of plurality E.g. He stretched his legs which were scattered with scars.     他伸出双腿，露出腿上的道道伤痕。 4. Putting in word to indicate different tenses or sequences E.g. We won't retreat; we never have and never will.     我们不会后退，我们从未后退过，将来也决不后退。 5. Addition by logical analysis E.g. Air pressure decreases with altitude.     气压随海拔高度的增加而下降。 6. Addition for the purpose of rhetoric or coherence E.g. This printer is indeed cheap and fine.     这部打印机真是价廉物美。