跨文化交际Chapter 2 Kluchhohn27s five dimentions

Chapter3Kluchhohn’sdimensions TwoAmericananthropologistsFlorenceKluckhohnandFredStrodtbeckmadeaveryimportantstudyofvalues. Theystudiedthefivecommunitieswhichwerewithinfiftymilesofeachother.(firstin1936thenin1951) Theyidentifiedfiveorientations,fivecategoriesofbeliefsandbehavioursthatareuniversal. Thismeansthatallcultureshavetoworkoutsolutionstotheseissues.fivedimensions1.humannatureorientation, 2.human-natureorientation, 3.time-orientation, 4.activityorientation,and 5.relationalorientation. TheFigure  Humannature Thefirst:evilbutperfectible. Thesecond:mixtureofgoodandevil.   Andthethird:goodbutcorruptible. Shamecultureandguiltculturehumannature Thefirst:evilbutperfectible. ThetraditionalWesternbeliefabouthumannatureisthathumansarebasicallyevil. WeseethisintheBiblestoryofAdamandEve.GodthrowsthemoutoftheGardenofEdenbecausetheyatethefruitfromtheTreeofKnowledge. Sincethen,accordingtoChristianteaching,allhumanbeingshavehavebeenbornwithoriginalsin.ThatmeanstheydoevilaspartoftheirnatureandcanonlybesavedfromevilbyGod.(Perfecthumannaturebykeepingdoinggoodthings.)(more) AsaresultoftheriseofhumanismintheWest,thebasicbeliefhaschangedtooneofseeinghumansasamixtureofgoodandevil. ThetraditionalviewhasalsobeenincorporatedintoWesterninstitutionsinvariousways.ThedistrustofhumannaturecanbeseeninAmericanpoliticalinstitutionswiththeirchecksandbalances. Thisviewalsoshowsupinmoderntheoriesthatseemtohavenothingtodowithreligiousbeliefs.ThepsychologicaltheoriesofSigmundFreudincludetheideathatinfantsarecontrolledbyprimitivedesires(evil)andlearntocontrolthem(becomegood)astheirpersonalitydevelops. Wefinddichotomyhere.(return) Thethird:goodbutcorruptible. ThisiswhatweChinesebelieve.Childrenarebelievedtobepureandinnocentbutmaybecomecorruptastheygrowolderandhavemorecontactwithsociety. WeareallfamiliarwiththestoryofMencius'mothermovingthreetimesinordertobeclosetoagoodneighborhood. (Originallygood,butifnotcarefulaboutwhatpeoplesurrounding,thenyoumightreallybecomecorrupted.ThinkofwhatHanfeitzesaidaboutthis.) ShamecultureandguiltcultureHanfeitze Aphilosopherofthe“legalistschool”,livedaboutthreecenturiesafterConfucius. Hemaintainsthatweshouldnotexpectpeopletobegood,butweshouldmakeitimpossibleforthemtobebad.Shamecultureandguiltculture(humannature) Inguiltcultures,thepersonisexpectedtofeelguiltyifhe/shedoesoreventhinkssomethingwrong,whetherornotanyoneknowsaboutit. Inshamecultures,thegoodisanidealeveryonehopestorealizebutmaynotbepossibletoachieveineverysituation.Whatisimportantisthatyoumeetyourobligationtobeamodelofvirtueforaparticulargroupofpeopletowhomyouhavesucharesponsibility. InConfucianculturespeopleareencouragedtobegoodandarelikelytofeelshamediftheyfailtoliveuptoothers’expectationsthattheybevirtuous.IfChinahaswhatsomeexpertscallashameculture,thentheWestisdominatedbyguiltcultures. Howisitrelatedwithtimeorientation(pastorfuture)? 基督教的原罪说让人忏悔，不断地忏悔，造就了西方人灵动的心灵。人处于神与魔、灵与肉的冲突中，不能安静；人又必须超越现世，驰奔向天国，也不能安于现状。另外，既人类始祖犯了“原罪”，人就不能向后退，对祖先也不可能有好感。 儒家的性本善则让人“反身而诚”，安于现状，安分守己，故中国人有静态的心灵。同时性本善也导致祖宗崇拜。 罪感文化vs耻感文化/乐感文化/善感文化Relationshiptonature First:subjugationtonature. Second:harmonywithnature. Third:Masteryovernature. Extensionofthevalue“human-nature”tohumanrelationshipsFirst:subjugationtonature. Ifyouhavethistypeoforientation,youbelievethatbasicallyhumanbeingsarepowerless.Humanbeingsareatthemercyofnature.NativeAmericansbasicallyadoptthiskindoforientation.Second:harmonywithnature. WeChinesebelievethatmanshouldbeinharmonywithnature. Examples:Chinesemedicine,houses,proverbs,etc. ChinesegardensandhousesrevealChinesesocialattitudestowardstherelationshipbetweenhumansandnature.Pavilions,pavedpathways,andotherstructuresareintegratedwithnaturalfeaturesofwater,treesandrock. Thereisnosharpdistinctionbetweenbeinginsideabuildingandbeingoutsideinnature.yougoinsidetoenjoythebuilding. IntheWest,buildingstendtodominatetheirsurroundingsandinteriorsandexteriorsaredistinctspaces.Natureisoutsideofhumansociety.(skyscrapers,monuments,etc.lookfromafar)Third:Masteryovernature. Inindustrializedsocieties,peopletendtobelievethatnatureshouldbemadetoservemankind.Youcantakewhateveryoulikefromnature. Biblestory:AdamandEve Thisview(manbeingseparatedfromnature)canbeseenfromtheBiblestoryofcreation.AdamisgivendominanceoverallofGod’screation.Adamandhishumandescendentsstandapartfromandabovenatureandaretoldtousethenaturalworldtomeethumanneeds. Thisusedtobetheprevalentviewinwesternsocieties.Buttodaymoreandmorepeoplecometobelievethatthisisnottherightattitude.Weshouldprotecttheenvironmentinsteadofexploitingnature.(eg.Greenorganizations)Extensionofthisvaluetohumanengineering Ifyourcultureteachesintegrationwithnature,harmonyandbalance,then? youarelikelytoseekharmonyandbalanceinsocialrelationshipsaswell. Ifyouareinaweofnatureandfeelhelplessinfaceofitspower,then? youmightalsofeelpowerlessinotherareasofyourlife. Ifyouthinkyouareseparatefromnatureandcancontrolit,then? youprobablythinkyouareseparatefromothersandcanusescientificmethodstocontrolpeopleandevents.humanengineering ThisistrueintheWestwheretechnologyextendstothehumanworldintheformofhumanengineering.Thescientificstudyofhumanmotivationandtheinventionoftechnologytocontrolitarethebasisofprofessionalpracticeinfieldssuchasadvertising,psychology,education,sociology,publicrelationsandmanagement.timeorientation past-oriented present-oriented future-oriented Lineartimeandcyclicaltimepast-oriented Thosewhoarepast-orientedtendtobelievetraditionisimportant. Tothem,theculturalmemoryisrichanddeep.Theyliketolookbacktoaperiodwhentheirculturewasattheheightofitspowerandgloryandmayquoterespectedphilosophersandleadersfromthepastasaguideforactioninthepresent. Andtheymayfeelmoresecurewhensomethingnewisdefinedassimilartosomethingthatoccurredinthepast.Forinstance,ifanewpolicyisintroduced,itmaybegiventheauthorityofthepastbycomparingittoahistoricaleventorbysupportingitwithaquotationfromarespectedleaderofthepast.Present-oriented. Peoplewiththisorientationenjoywhattheyhave. Hispanicsarebelievedtobepeoplewhoarepresent-oriented.Theyshouldenjoywhatevertheyhavewhiletheylive.ThisiswhatwesayinChinese:及时行乐.Future-oriented Ifyoutendtolooktothefutureandmakeplansforthefuture,you'refuture-oriented. Inthoseculturesovercomingthelimitationsofthepastorsurpassingtheaccomplishmentsofthepastaregoodreasonsfordoingsomethingnew. Peoplethereoftenhaveastrongbeliefinprogress.Butpeoplemayhavenegativeexpectationsforthefutureandtheireffortsmaybedirectedatpreparingfororpreventingbadtimesahead. (Back)Whateverthefutureisseenasprobablygoodorbad,timeisseenasastraightlinethatleadsfromthepastandisswiftlymovingintothefuture.(lineartime)Itmovesinonlyonedirection,fromthepasttothefuture. Inpresentandpast-orientedsocietiespeoplearemorelikelytoexperiencetimeasacycle,asrepeatingitselfaccordingtosomepattern. MaybetheChineseusedtobepast-oriented.(lookback,quote)Buttoday,maybemoreandmoreChinesearefuture-oriented.Theyhavegreatplansforthefuture.Stilltherearescholarswhodon’tagree.activityorientation Differentcultureshavedifferentactivityorientations. Lookatthefollowingquestions: 1.Whatdoyoudo?Whoareyou? 2.Whatdoesyourfatherdo?  being-oriented being-in-becoming-oriented doing-orientedbeing-oriented Inthistypeofculture,peoplearesatisfiedwithwhattheyhave,andfamilybackgroundismoreimportantthanwhattheyaccomplish.Theiractionsexpresswhotheyare.Forthatreasonpeoplebehaveinwaysappropriatetotheirpositions(status,socialroles,andcharacter)inlife."being-in-becoming."  It'saspiritualgoalofinnerharmonyandpeace.It'ssomewhereinbetweenbeinganddoing. Thestressisthedevelopmentoftheself,whatevertheselfisunderstoodtobeinaparticularculture. InIndiathesocialattitudeiswidelyacceptedthattherearedifferentwaysoflifeanddifferentvirtuesforpeopleatvariousstagesoflife. (beforemarriage,certainvirtues.Whenmarried,worldlysuccess,familyobligations.Aftermiddlelife,detachedfromworldlylifeandbecomemorespiritual.) InSouthAsia,thisorientationexistssidebysidewithdoingandbeingones,andtoalesserextentinothercultures.doingorientation Thisactivityleadstoexternalaccomplishments.Thegoalistoachieveasmuchaspossible(moredynamic).Itmeansyouwanttodothingsandtoachievesuccess.Soyoutendtobemoreactive. Becausethestressisonactionindoingculture,thegoalstowardwhichactionisdirectedarealsoemphasized.Andthereisoftenasenseofurgencyaboutgettingthingsdone.Deadlinesareimportant,asistheschedule.Tohaveafullscheduleindicatesthatyouareaccomplishingthings.(example) Doingculturepeopleoftentalkalotandmaynotbeespeciallyphysicallyactive.Why? Theymaytellyouwhentheyaretalking,theyareplanning,problem-solving,gatheringinformationormakingdecisions.Theseareimportantconceptsforthembecausethesearethementalactivitiesthatleadtoactionoraretheequivalentofaction. Martha,anAmericanhighschoolstudent,wenttoIndonesiaaspartofastudentexchangeprogram.Shewasexcited. ThefirstfewdayswerefilledwithmeetinghernewIndonesianexchangefamily,tryingnewfoods,walkingaroundtheneighborhood,andgettingtoknowherIndonesianexchangesister,Ketty.Exciting.Butabouthersecondweek,Marthabegantofeelasifsomethingwaswrong. Onemorning,sheaskedKetty,"So,whataretheplansfortoday?Whatarewegoingtodo?" Kettyreplied,"Oh,Ididn'treallymakeanyplans.Mymothermightwantustogoshoppingwithherlater.Thenwe'llseewhatwefeellikedoing.Maybewecouldgodowntown." "Whattimeisyourmomgoingshopping?" "Oh,whenevershe'sready.Areyougettingbored?Maybeweshouldsignupforoneofthoseguidedtoursofthecity." "Oh,no,Idon'twanttobeatourist.Iwanttodojustwhatyoudo.IguessI'mjustusedtobeingbusyallthetime.It'shardformetogetusedtonothavingplans," "Doesn'titbotheryoutorusharoundsomuch?"askedKetty. "No,IloveitwhenI'mbusy.Sittingaroundwastingtimemakesmenervous.Let'sgodosomething,Ketty.I'monlyherefortwomonths,afterall.Idon'twanttoleaveIndonesiafeelingthatIhaven'texperiencedasmuchasIcan."Marthalookeddownatherwatchagainandsaid,"Goodness,it'salmost11andallwe'vedoneissitaroundtalking!"Socialrelationships Hierarchy(authoritarianism) Group(collectivism) IndividualHierarchy Thesocietyasawholeconsistsofaseriesofhierarchies. Apersonwhoisatthetopofonehierarchymaybeatthebottomofanotherhierarchythatisaboveit.Thesepeopleareawareoftheirpositions(clearlydefinedprivilegesandobligations)inrelationtoothers.  Hierarchicalsocietiesdifferfromoneanotherdependingonthecriteriausedtoassignapersonaplaceinthehierarchy.somegroupsarepermanentlyonthebottomandotherspermanentlyonthetop. (Thecriteriamaybebasedonrace,ethnicgroup,orinheritancefromone’sparents)Group Insocietieswhererelationshipsarebasedongroups,eachperson’ssocialidentitycomesfromtheirgroupmemberships.Peoplefeeldependentonthegroup,safewithinit,proud,andcompetitivewithothergroups. (in-groups—yourfamily,relatives,friendsandout-groups—strangers) Loyaltyisimportantingroup-orientedcultures.Inthispatternthegroupactoutofconcernforallitsmembersandmakedecisionsbyconsensus,andmembersareloyaltothegroup.Individual Inindividualisticsocieties,socialrelationsarebasedontheautonomyofeachperson. Therearemanyhierarchiesinindividualistcultures(theUSandothers),butpeopleareuncomfortablewiththemandtrytoreducestheirimpact.(useoffirstnames;high-rankingpeoplesendmessagesthattheyarejustlikeeveryoneelse.) Peopletendtobelessawareofothers’feelingsandmaytalkmorethanpeoplefromgroup-orientedcultures.Self-relianceandindependenceareimportantanditisconsideredweaktobedependentonothers.(careofelderlyparents) Personalinitiativeishighlyvalued.Peoplelearntoexpresstheirindividualdesiresandmakeindividualchoiceswhenveryyoung.Sendelderlyparentstoanursinghome. LinellDavis: AmericansdocarefortheelderlyparentsaswellasChinesedo,buttheyhavetodoitinawaythatdoesnotinterferewiththeautonomyandindependenceoftheolderperson. Collateralrelationship,collateralmeansconnected.Youtendtothinkaboutyourgroup,in-groups.(yourrelatives,yourfriends,peoplethatyouknow)Thisisgroup-oriented.   Andthenlinealrelationship.Thisisthinkingintermsoftime.Thatis,youhaveahistoricaltime.   Andfinallythethirdtypeisindividualisticrelationship.Thisstressesindividualgoals.Selfismoreimportantthanthegroup.Inotherwords,itisindividualism.Comparingvaluesacrosscultures