欧洲文化入门课后习题答案

欧洲文化入门课后习题答案：Divisionone:GreekcultureandRomanculture希腊、罗马文化Ⅰ.Greekculture希腊文化1.WhatarethemajorelementsinEuropeancultureTherearetwomainelements——theGreco-RomanelementandtheJudeo-Christianelement.2.WhatwerethemainfeaturesofancientGreeksocietyInGreeksociety,onlyadultmalecitizenhadrealpowerandthecitizenshipwasasetofrightswhichamaninheritedfromhisfather.TheeconomyofAthensrestedonanimmenseamountofslavelabor.Slavesworkedfortheirmasters.Theexploitationwasaserioussocialproblem.TheGreekslovedsports.TheyoftentookpartinthecontestsofsportsinOlympusMount,thusOlympicGamescameintobeing.3.WhatdidHomerdoWhyisheimportantinthehistoryofEuropeanliteratureHedepictedthegreatGreekmenwholivedintheperiod.andwarshappeningatthattime.Asanauthorofepics,heemployedfineliterarylanguagetodescribewarsandmen,eventhoughtheyweredull.HestoodinthepeekofGreekliteratureandexertedagreatinfluenceonhisfollowers.4.WhoweretheoutstandingdramatistsofancientGreeceWhatimportantplaysdideachofthemwriteAeschylus,SophoclesandEuripideswerethreeoutstandingdramatistsofancientGreece.Aeschylus:PrometheusBound,Persians,AgamemnonSophocles:OedipustheKing,Electra,AntigoneEuripides:Andromache,Medea,TrojanWomen5.WeretherehistoriansthenWhoweretheyWhatdideachofthemwriteaboutYes,thereare.TheywereHerodotusandThucydides.HerodotuswroteaboutthewarsbetweenGreeksandPersians.ThucydideswroteaboutthewarbetweenAthensandSpartaandbetweenAthensandSyracuse.6.WouldyousaythatphilosophywashighlydevelopedthenWhowerethemajorphilosophersNo,Iwouldn’t.Becausethosephilosophicalideaswereonlyidealismorsimplematerialismormetaphysics.Socrates,PlatoandAristotlewerethemajorphilosophersatthattime.7.DidSocrateswriteanybookHowthendoweknowabouthimWhatdistinguishedhisphilosophyNo,hedidn’t.WeknowSocrateschieflythroughwhatPlatorecordedofhiminthefamousDialogueswrittenbyPlato.Heconsideredthatphilosophyrestedwiththedissectofoneselfandvirtuewashighworthoflife.Hismethodofargument,byquestionsandanswers,wasknownasthedialecticalmethod.8.TellsomeofPlato’sideas.Whydopeoplecallhimanidealist(1)Menhaveknowledgebecauseoftheexistenceofcertaingeneral“ideas”,likebeauty,truth,andgoodness.(2)Weshouldnotlookatthethingswhicharenotseen:forthethingswhicharenotseeneternal.Becauseheemphasizedtheimportanceof“ideas”andbelievedthat“thought”hadcreatedtheworld,peoplecallhimanidealist.9.InwhatimportantwayswasAristotledifferentfromPlatoWhataresomeofAristotle’sworksthatarestillinfluentialtoday(1)Aristotleemphasizeddirectobservationofnatureandinsistedthattheoryshouldfollowfact.ThisisdifferentfromPlato’srelianceonsubjectivethinking.(2)Hethoughtthat“idea”andmattertogethermadeconcreteindividualrealitiesinwhichhedifferedfromPlatowhoheldthatideashadhigherrealitythanthepoliticalworld.Hissignificantworksincludes:Ethics,PoliticsandRhetoric.10.WhoweresomeoftheotherphilosophersactiveinthatperiodDoestheword“Epicurean”initsmodernsenseconveythetruemeaningofthephilosophyoftheancientEpicureansWhatweretheirviewsonpleasure(1)TheywereHeracleitue,Democritus,Diogenes,Pyrrhon,EpicurusandZeno.(2)No,itdoesn’t.TheancientEpicureansbelievedpleasuretobethehighestworthoflife,butbypleasuretheymeant,notsensualenjoymentbutthatattainedbythepracticeofvirtue.Butthisideawasmisledbymodernpeople,intheirsense,theword“Epicurean”hascometomeanindulgenceinluxuriousliving.11.SaysomethingaboutGreeksculpture,potteryandarchitecture.WhatwasthemostfamousGreektempleIsitstillthere(1)AlongwiththeformationofGreekcivilization,Greeksculpture,potteryandarchitecturegotmanygreatachievements.Greeksputintoworksofartthethingstheyadmiredandworshiped,thescientificrulestheydiscovered.Greekartevolvedfromthearchaicperiodtotheclassicalperiodwhichmarkeditsmaturity.(2)themostfamoustemplewastheAcropolisatAthens.(3)Yes,itisstillthere.12.GivesomeexamplestoshowtheenormousinfluenceofGreekcultureonEnglishliterature.Someexamples:(1)AFreudianterm“OedipusComplex”of19thcenturyoriginatingfromaGreektragedyinwhichkingOedipusunknowinglykilledhisfatherandmarriedhismother.(2)Intheearlypartofthe19thcentury,inEnglandalone,threeyoungRomanticpoetsexpressedtheiradmirationofGreekcultureinworkswhichhavethemselvesbecomeclassics:Byron’sIsleofGreece,Shelley’sHellasandPrometheusUnboundandKeats’sOdeonaGrecianUrn.(3)Inthe20thcentury,thereareHomericparallelsintheIrishmanJamesJoyce’smodernistmasterpieceUlysses.Ⅱ.Romanculture罗马文化1.WhatdidtheRomanhaveincommonwiththeGreeksAndwhatwasthechiefdifferencebetweenthem(1)TheRomanshadalotincommonwiththeGreeks.Bothpeopleshadtraditionsrootedintheideaofthecitizen-assembly,hostiletomonarchyandtoservility.Theirreligionswerealikeenoughformostoftheirdeitiestobereadilyidentified—GreekZeuswithRomanJupiter,GreekAphroditewithRomanVenus,andsoon—andtheirmythstobefused.Theirlanguagesworkedinsimilarwaysandwereultimatelyrelated,bothbeingmembersoftheIndo-EuropeanlanguagefamilywhichstretchesfromBangladeshtoIceland.(2)Therewasonebigdifference.TheRomansbuiltupavastempire.TheGreeksdidn’t,exceptedforthebriefmomentofAlexander’sconquests,whichsoondisintegrated.2.ExplainPaxRomana.Intheyear27.,OctaviustooksupremepowerasemperorwiththetitleofAugustus.Twocenturieslater,theRomanempirereacheditsgreatestextentintheNorthandEast.Theemperorsmainlyreliedonastrongarmy—thefamousRomanLegionsandaninfluentialbureaucracytoexerttheirrules.ThustheRomansenjoyedalongperiodofpeacelasting200years.ThisremarkablephenomenoninthehistoryisknownasPaxRomana.3.WhatcontributionsdidtheRomansmaketotheruleoflawInRoman’searlieststage,onlyanumberofpatriciansknewthecustomarylegalprocedure.Whentheruleswereputintowritinginthemiddleofthethirdcentury.itmarkedavictoryfortheplebeians.Therewasfurtherdevelopmentoflawundertheemperorsuntilitwascodified,eventuallytobecomethecoreofmoderncivilandcommerciallawinmanyWesterncountries.4.WhoweretheimportantprosewritersinancientRomeWhatdoes“Ciceronian”meanDidCicerowritethatkindofrhetoricalproseallthetime<1>MarcusTulliusCiceroandJuliusCaesarweretwoimportantprosewriters.<2>CiceronianmeansCicero’seloquentoratoricalmannerofwriting,WhichhashadanenormousinfluenceonthedevelopmentofEuropeanprose.<3>No,hedidn’t.BecauseCiceroappearsasadifferentmanwithadifferentstyle,farlessrhetorical,butcolloquialandintimate.5.GivetheexampleofthetersestyleofJuliusCaesar’sprose.Anexample:Icame,Isaw,Iconquered(modelsofsuccinctLatin).6.WhowasLucretiusWhatdidhedo(1)LucretiuswasapoetofancientRome.(2)HewrotethephilosophicalpoemOntheNatureofThingtoexpoundtheideasofEpicurustheGreekatomist.7.WhatisthebookforwhichVirgilhasbeenfamousthroughoutthecountriesInwhatwaysisthebooklinkedwiththeGreekpast(1)ThebookwasAeneid.(2)ThestorywasaboutAeneas,oneoftheprincesofTroy,whoescapedfromthatburningcitywhenitfelltotheGreeks,tocarryontheTrojancauseinanewplace,Rome.Hedidn’tgoalone,but,carryinghisfatheronhisshouldersandleadinghislittlesonbythehand,afamilygroupofthreegenerationsmovedtogether.ThusinthiswaythebookislinkedwiththeGreekpast.8.WhydowesayAeneusisatrulytragicheroBecauseAeneashadtobetraythegreatpassionofhislife,hisloveforDido,queenofCarthage,sothathecouldfulfillhishistoricmission.9.WhatisthechiefRomanachievementinarchitectureGivesomeexamples.(1)TheRomansweregreatengineers.Theycoveredtheirworldfromoneendtotheotherwithroads,bridges,aqueducts,theatresandarenas.(2)Someexamples:A.ThePantheon:thegreatestthebestpreservedRomantemplebuiltin..B.PontduGard:itisanexceptionallywell-preservedaqueductthatspansawidevalleyinsouthernFrance.10.Whyarethewall-paintingsoftheancientRomansstillsignificanttoustodayRomanpaintingwasstronglyinfluencedbytheartofGreece.Anditalsohadpecularitiesofitsown.Unfortunatelymuchofthepaintingnolongerexists.Thereare,however,somewall-paintingsfromPompeiiandothertownsnearNaples.Thesewall-paintingsincludestilllives,landscapepaintingsandfigurepaintings.AmongthemwereLadyMusicianandYoungGirl,theMaidenGatheringFlowersandtheLandscape.Divisiontwo:theBibleandChristianity基督教及其《圣经》1.WhatwastheHebrew’smajorcontributiontoworldcivilizationThehistoryoftheHebrewswashandeddownorallyfromonegenerationtoanotherintheformoffolktalesandstories,whichwererecordedlaterintheOldTestament,whichstilllaterbecamethefirstpartoftheChristianBible.ThustheHebrewsmadeoneofthegreatestcontributionstotheworldcivilization.2.WhydowesayJudaismandChristianityarecloselyrelatedJudaismandChristianityarecloselyrelated:⑴itwastheJewishtraditionwhichgavebirthtoChristianity;⑵bothoriginatedinPalestine—thehubofmigrationandtraderoute,whichledtoexchangeideasoverwideareas.3.WhendidthegreatexodustakeplaceAround1300.,Moses,thefamousHebrewleader,wenttoseethepharaohofEgypt,tellinghimthatYahwehwantedthepharaohtoendHebrewslaveryandlettheHebrewleaveEgypt.WiththisbegantheExodus,whichlastedfortyyears.4.WhowasMosesWhatdidhedofortheHebrewsMoseswasafamousHebrewleader.Around1300.,MosesledtheHebrewstoleaveEgyptforthePromisedLand.ThiswascalledtheExoduswhichlastedfortyyears.WhenthewanderingHebrewsleftthedesertandenteredthemountainousSinai,Mosesclimbedtothetopofthemountaintoreceiveformgodmessage,whichcametobeknownastheTenCommandments.HediedshortlybeforetheHebrewsarrivedattheirhomeland.5.WhataretheTenCommandmentsaboutTheTenCommandmentareasetofrulesMosescommandsallIsraeltoobeyinthenameofGod:⑴YahwehistheonlyGodallIsraelshouldworship;⑵Donotcarveandserveanyidoltoworship;⑶DonottakethenameofGodinvain;⑷KeeptheSabbathdayandlaborintheothersixdays;⑸Honorandrespectone’sparents;⑹Donotkill;⑺Donotcommitadultery;⑻Donotsteal;⑼Donotbearfalsewitnessagainstpeople;⑽Donotdesireone’sneighbor’swife,norhishouse,norhisfield,norhisservants,norhislivestock,noranythingelse.6.WhatwritingsmakeuptheNewTestamentTheNewTestamentconsistsof14books.Thefouraccounts,whichwerebelievedtohavebeenwrittenbyMatthew,Mark,Luke,andJohn,fourofJesus’earlyfollowers,arethefirstpartoftheNewTestamentandtellofthebirth,teaching,deathandResurrectionofJesus.Thencome:theActsoftheApostles,ahistoryoftheearlyChristianmovement:theEpistles,orletterstothechurchgroupsaroundtheMediterranean;andlastlythebookofRevelation,avisionaryaccountofthefinaltriumphofGod’spurpose.7.HowdidtherelationsbetweenChristiansandtheRomangovernmentchangeTheearlyChristianweresubjecttopersecutionsbytheRomangovernment.JesusChristwascrucifiedbytheRomangovernment.AfterJesusdied,hisdisciplinesSt.PeterandSt.PaulsufferedmartyrdomundertheRomanEmperorNeroabout65A.D.NeroevenburnedChristiansinhisgardenin64A.D.For240yearsafterthemartyrdomsofPeterandPaul,persecutionsofChristianscontinued.ThechiefpersecutionswereunderNero,Domitian,Trajan,ValerianandDiocletian.Despitethesepersecutions,ChristianscontinuedtospreadsteadilyovertheMediterraneanregion.ItbegantodrawmenandwomenfromallclassesandtheattitudeoftheRomangovernmenttowardChristianitybegantochange.By305Diocletiangaveuphisefforttodestroytheyoungreligion.WhenConstantineⅠwonthethronefromhisrivals,hebelievedthatGodhadhelpedhim,andin313heissuedtheEdictofMilanwhichgrantedreligiousfreedomtoallandmadeChristianitylegal.UnderConstantineChristianitymadegreatcontributionoftheempire.TheemperorswhofollowedConstantineⅠcontinuedpro-Christianpolicies.In392A.D.,EmperorTheodosiusmadeChristianitytheofficialreligionoftheempireandoutlawedallotherreligions.NowChristianityhadchangedfromanobjectofoppressiontoaweaponinthehandsoftherulingclasstocrushtheiropponents.8.HowdidChristianmonkshelpWesterncivilizationsurviveTheChristianmonkshelpedwesterncivilizationsurviveinmanyways:⑴TheChristianmonksspreadChristianitytotheMediterraneanregionandsomeofthemevensufferedmartyrdom;⑵SomemonkstranslatedtheOldTestamentintoGreekandSt.JerometranslatedthewholeBibleintoLatin.LatersomesuchasJohnWycliffeandWilliamTyndaletranslatedtheBibleintothevernacular;⑶IntheMiddleAges,peopleinWesternEuropeweremainlydividedintothreeclasses:clergy,lordsandpeasants.Ofthesethreeclasses,theonlyliteratesectionwastheclergy.TheChristianmonksdidalottohelppreserveandtransmitalargepartofthetraditionalheritageofthewesternculture.TheynotonlytranslatedtheBibleintoLatinortheVernacularbutalsocopiedortranslatedtheancientworksintothevernacular,suchasthemonksinthesemonasteriessetupbyCharlemagneandAlfredtheGreat.9.WhydowesaytheBiblehasshapedWesternculturemoredecisivelythananythingelseeverwrittenJudeo-ChristiantraditionconstitutesoneofthetwomajorcomponentsofEuropeanculture.TheBiblewhichisvirtuallyrelatedtoeveryphaseofhumanlifegreatlyinfluencespeople’sdailylife,especiallyintheMiddleAgeswhenalmosteveryonewasaChristian;TheBiblehasgreatimpactuponwesternliterature.Foralongperiodoftime,theLatinBiblewasacceptedastheauthorityandLatinwasofficiallanguageoftheRomanCatholicChurch,somostEuropeliteratureatthattimewasinLatin.BesidesitisgenerallyacceptedthattheEnglishBibleandShakespearearetwogreatreservoirsofModernEnglish.Furthermore,theuseofBiblicalthemeshasbeenaliterarytradition.InfactfewgreatEnglishandAmericanwritersofthe17th,18th,19thand20thcenturycanbereadandappreciatedwithsatisfactionwithoutasufficientknowledgeoftheBible;ThestudyoftheChristianteachingespeciallytheBiblehasbecomeanimportantbranchofknowledge—scholasticismwhichhasbeenprevalentforcenturies;TheBiblehasalsoinfluencedwesternphilosophiesandscience.ThustheBiblehasshapedwesternculturemoredecisivelythananythingelseeverwritten.Divisionthree:TheMiddleAges中世纪1.WhathappenedinWesternEuropeafterthedeclineoftheRomanEmpireAftertheRomanEmpirelostitspredominance,agreatmanyGermanicKingdomsbegantogrowintothenationsknowasEngland,France,Italy,andGermanyinitsplace.ThesenationsofWesternEuropewereinthesceneoffrequentwarsandinvasions.Thepoliticalunityhadgivenwaytowidespreaddestructionandconfusion.Hungeranddiseasekilledmanylivesandvillagefellintoruinandgreatareasoflandlaywaste.Therewasnocentralgovernmenttokeeptheorder.TheonlyorganizationthatseemedtouniteEuropewastheChristianchurch.ChristianitywasalmosttheallandtheoneofMedievallivesinwesternEuropeandtookleadinpolitics,law,art,andlearningforhundredsyears.2.Whatweretheculturalcharacteristicsoftheperiodfrom500to1000Aboveall,theculturalcharactersofthisperiodweretheheritageandachievementofRomancultureandtheemergenceofHebrewandGothicculture.3.WhowasCharlesMartelCharlesMartelwasaFrankishrulerwhogavehissoldiersestatesknownasfiefsasarewardfortheirservicesin732.4.WhatwastherelationshipbetweenlordandvassalLordsgrantedpartsoftheirlandsknownasfiefstovassals.Inreturn,thevassalspromisedtofightforthelords.5.IntowhatthreegroupswerepeopledividedunderfeudalismUnderfeudalism,peopleoftheirWesternEuropeweremainlydividedintothreeclasses:clergy,lords,andpeasants.6.WhatwasthedifferentbetweenaserfandafreemanAserfhadnolandandnofreedom.Hewasbondtothelandwherehehadbeenborn.Afreemanwasapeasantwhousuallywasaworkerwhomadetheploughs,shodthehorses,andmadeharnessesforoxenandhorses.7.WhatistheimportanceoftheusingofvernacularlanguagesinMedievalliteratureIntheMiddleAges,some“nationalepics”werewritteninvernacularlanguage—thelanguageofvariousnationalstatesthatcameintobeingatthatperiod,andsomemonksadvocatedtranslatingtheBibleinvernacular.LiteraryworkswerenolongerallwritteninLatin.ItwasthestartingpointofagradualtransitionofEuropeanliteraturefromLatinculturethatwasthecombinationofavarietyodnationalcharacteristics.8.InwhatwaysdidGothicartdifferfromRomanesqueart⑴AlthoughGothicwasanoutgrowthoftheRomanesque,itwasgivendirectionsbyadifferentaestheticandphilosophicalspiritandreflectedamuchmoreorderedfeudalsocietywithfullconfidence.⑵Romanesquearchitectureischaracterizedbymassiveness,solidity,andmonumentalitywithanoverallblockyappearance.Sculptureandpainting,primaryinchurches,developedawonderfulunitywitharchitecture.Bothartsoftenareimbuedwithsymbolismandallegory.Theyarenotbasedonnaturalformsbutusedeliberatedistortionsforexpressiveimpact.⑶Gothiccathedralssoaredhigh,theirwindows,archedandtowersreachingheavenward,flingingtheirpassionagainstthesky.TheyweredecoratedwithbeautifulstainedglasswindowsandsculpturesmorelifelikethananysinceancientRome.9.WhatwasthemeritwhichCharlemagneandAlfredtheGreatshareBothCharlemagneandAlfredtheGreatcontributiongreatlytotheEuropeanculture.Bothofthemencouragedlearningbysettingupmonasteryschools.ThescholarsinAlfredtheGreat’smonasteriestranslatedtheLatinworksintothevernacular.Thusbothhelpedpreservetheancientclassicsandculture.Divisionfour:RenaissanceandReformation文艺复兴与宗教改革1.WhatmadeItalythebirthplaceoftheRenaissanceBecauseofitsgeographicalposition,foreigntradedevelopedearlyinItaly.ThisbroughtItalyintocontactwithotherculturesandgaverisetourbaneconomyandhelpedItalyaccumulatewealthwhichwasanessentialfactorforthefloweringofartandliterature.Fortwocenturiesbeginningfromthelate15thcentury,Florencewasthegoldencitywhichgavebirthtoawholegenerationofpoets,scholars,artistsandsculptors.TherewasinFlorencearevivalofinterestinclassicallearningandrisingofhumanistideas.Andtospreadthenewideas,librariesandacademieswerefounded.Inthe15thcenturyprintingwasinventedandhelpedtospreadhumanistideas.2.WhatarethemainelementsofhumanismHowaretheseelementsreflectedinartandliteratureduringtheItalianRenaissanceHumanististheessenceofRenaissance.Humanistsinrenaissancebelievedthathumanbeingshadrightstopursuewealthandpleasureandtheyadmiresthebeautyofhumanbody.Thisbeliefrancountertothemedievalasceticalideaofpovertyandstoicism,andshiftedman’sinterestfromChristianitytohumanity,fromreligiontophilosophy,fromheaventoearth,fromthebeautyofGodtothebeautyofhumaninallitsjoy,sensesandfeeling.ThephilosophyofhumanismisreflectedintheartandliteratureduringtheItalianRenaissanceintheliteratureworksofBoccaccioandPetrarchandintheartofGiotto,Brunelleschi,Donatello,Giorgione,daVinci,Michelangelo,Raphael,andTitian,etc.Intheirworkstheydidnotstressdeathandotherworldbutcallonmantoliveandworkforthepresent.3.WhydowelookuponPetrarchasthefatherofmodernpoetryPetrarchwasaprominentfigureofhistime,agreatfigureinItalianliteratureandoneofthegreathumanistsduringtheRenaissance.Hehaswrittennumerouslyrics,sonnetsandcanzonets.Petrarchrejectedmedievalcountryconventionsandsangfortrueloveandearthlyhappinessinhissonnets.LatersonnetsbecameaveryimportantliteraryformofpoetryinEuropeandalotofpoets,suchasShakespeare,Spencer,andMrs.Browning,wereindebtedtohim.Thuswelookuponhimasthefatherofmodernpoetry4.HowdidItalianRenaissanceartandarchitecturebreakawayfrommedievaltraditionsTheItalianRenaissanceartandarchitectureradicallybrokeawayfromthemedievalmethodsofrepresentingthevisibleworld.Comparedwiththelatter,theformerhasthefollowingdistinctfeatures:⑴Artbrokeawayfromthedominationofchurchandartistwhousedtobecraftsmencommissionedbythechurchbecameaseparatestratadoingnobleandcreativeworks;⑵ThemesofpaintingandarchitecturechangedfrompurelycelestialrealmfocusingonthestoriesoftheBible,ofGodandMarytoanappreciationofallaspectsofnatureandman;⑶TheartistsstudiedtheruinsofRomanandGreektemplesandputmanyoftheprinciplesofancientcivilizationintotheirworks;⑷Artistsintroducedintheirworksscientifictheoriesofanatomyandperspective.5.InwhatwaywasDaVinciimportantduringtheRenaissanceLeonadodaVinciwasamanofmanytalents,aRenaissancemaninthetruesenseoftheword.Hewasapainter,asculptor,anarchitect,amusician,anengineer,andascientistallinone.Asanartist,hewasveryimportant.HehaslefttotheworldfamousworkssuchasLastSupperandMonaLisa.Thenhisexcellentuseofcontrastbetweenlightanddarknessshowedhimasanexcellentpainter.Mostimportantofall,daVincihadprofoundunderstandingofart.Inhis5000notebooks,heputdownhisobservationsoflifeandhissketchdrawing.Inhispaintinghestressedtheexpressionofemotionalstates.Hisunderstandingsofartexertedgreatinfluenceuponpaintersofhisowngenerationandgenerationstofollow.Hewasalsoveryimportantinthescienceofmedicine.DuringhislifehedissectedmorethanthirtycorpsesandwasagreatanatomistinItaly.Heplacedartintheserviceofanatomyasasciencebasedonextensiveresearch.6.WhatarethedoctrinesofMartinLutherWhatwasthesignificanceofthereformationinEuropeancivilizationInReformationbeganin1517,MartinLutherputforththefollowingdoctrines:⑴HerejectedtheabsoluteauthorityoftheRomanCatholicchurchandreplaceitwithabsoluteoftheBible.PeoplecancommunicatewithGoddirectlyinstead