principle of language learning and teaching（第五版）03

CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition 77 rules, generalize across a category, overgeneralize, and proceed in stages of develop­ ment (more on this in Chapter 9). Recent research has suggested that even the order of acquisition may universally follow certain identifiable determinants (Goldschneider & DeKeyser, 2005). The variability of second language data poses thorny problems that have been addressed by people like Gass and Selinker (2001), Preston (1996), Ellis (1989, 1987), and Tarone (1988). The variability of second language acquisition is exacerbated by a host of cognitive, affective, cultural, and contextual variables that are sometimes not applicable to a first language learning situation. Language and Thought Another intricately complex issue in both first and second language acquisition is the precise relationship between language and thought. We can see that language helps to shape thinking and that thinking helps to shape language. What happens to this interdependence when a second language is acquired? Does the bilingual person's memory consist of one storage system (compound bilingualism) or two (coordinate bilingualism)? The second language learner is clearly presented with a tremendous task in sorting out new meanings from old, distinguishing thoughts and concepts in one language that are similar but not quite parallel to the second lan­ guage, perhaps really acquiring a whole new system of conceptualization. The second language teacher needs to be acutely aware of cultural thought patterns that may be as interfering as the linguistic patterns themselves. Imitation While children are good deep-structure imitators (centering on meaning, not sur­ face features) , adults can fare much better in imitating surface structure (by rote mechanisms) if they are explicitly directed to do so. Sometimes their ability to center on surface distinctions is a distracting factor; at other times it is helpful. Adults learning a second language might do well to attend consciously to truth value and to be less aware of surface structure as they communicate. The implication is that meaningful contexts for language learning are necessary; second language learners ought not to become too preoccupied with form lest they lose sight of the function and purpose of language. Practice and Frequency Too many language classes are ftlled with rote practice that centers on surface forms. Most cognitive psychologists agree that the frequency of stimuli and the number of times spent practicing a form are not highly important in learning an item. What is important is meaningfulness. While some researchers quibble on the issue of frequency (Ellis, 2002), in the case of second language learning, it appears that contextualized, appropriate, meaningful communication in the second language seems to be the best possible practice the second language learner could engage in. 78 UIA PTER 3 Age and Acquisition Input In the case of classroom second language learning, parental input is replaced by teacher input. Teachers might do well to be as deliberate, but meaningful, in their corrununications with students as the parent is to the child since input is as important to the second language learner as it is to the first language learner. And that input should foster meaningful corrununicative use of the language in appropriate contexts. Discourse We have only begun to scratch the surface of possibilities of second language discourse analysis . As we search for better ways of teaching communicative compe­ tence to second language learners, research on the acquisition of discourse becomes more and more important. Perhaps a study of children's amazing dexterity in ac­ quiring rules of conversation and in perceiving intended meaning will help us to find ways of teaching such capacities to second language learners. We will look more at these issues in Chapter 9. SOME "AGE-AND-ACQUISITION-INSPIRED" lANGUAGE TEACHING MEmODS In Chapter 2, we saw that research on language teaching in the "modern" era may have been sparked by Franc;;ois Gouin's observation of his young nephew'sjirst lan­ guage acquisition. Another look at language teaching methodology in a historical context reveals a number of instances of methods that were inspired by observation of and research on child second language acquiSition. Two of these methods are described here, as examples of extending an understanding of children's second lan­ guage acquisition to the adult second language classroom. Total Physical Response The founder of the Total Physical Response (TPR) method,James Asher (1977), noted that children, in learning their first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that their listening is accompanied by physical responses (reaching, grabbing, moving, looking, and so forth). He also gave some attention to right-brain learning. According to Asher, motor activity is a right-brain function that should precede left-brain language processing. Asher was also convinced that lan­ guage classes were often the locus of too much an:xiety and wished to devise a method that was as stress-free as possible, where learners would not feel overly self­ conscious and defensive. The TPR classroom, then, was one in which students did a great deal of listening and acting. The teacher was very directive in orchestrating a performance: "The instructor is the director of a stage play in which the students are the actors" (Asher, 1977, p . 43). CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition 79 A typical TPR class utilized the imperative mood, even at more advanced profi­ ciency levels. Commands were an easy way to get learners to move about and to loosen up: "Open the window," "Close the door," "Stand up," "Sit down;' "Pick up the book," "Give it to John," and so on. No verbal response was necessary. More com­ plex syntax was incorporated into the imperative: "Draw a rectangle on the chalk­ board." "Walk quickly to the door and hit it." Humor was easy to introduce: "Walk slowly to the window and jump." "Put your toothbrush in your book" (Asher, 1977, p. 55). Interrogatives were also easily dealt with: "Where is the book?" "Who is John?" (students point to the book or to John). Eventually students, one by one, presumably felt comfortable enough to venture verbal responses to questions, then to ask questions themselves, and the process continued. Like other methods of the twentieth century,TPR-as a method-had its limi­ tations. It was especially effective in the begilliling levels of language proficiency, but lost its distinctiveness as learners advanced in their competence. But today TPR is used more as a type of classroom activity, which is a more useful way to view it. Many successful communicative, interactive classrooms utilizeTPR activities to pro­ vide both auditory input and physical activity. The Natural Approach Stephen Krashen 's (1982) theories of second language acquisition have been widely discussed and hotly debated since the 1970s. (Chapter 10 will offer further details on Krashen 's influence on second language acquisition theory.) One of the hall­ marks of Krashen's theories is that adults should acquire a second language just as children do: they should be given the opportunity to "pick up" a language, and shouldn't be forced to "study" grammar in the classroom. The major methodological offshoot of Krashen 's work was manifested in the Natural Approach, developed by one of Krashen's associates, Tracy Terrell (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Acting on many of the claims that Asher made for TPR, Krashen and Terrell felt that learners would benefit from delaying production until speech "emerges," that learners should be as relaxed as possible in the classroom, and that a great deal of communication and "acquisition" should take place, as opposed to analysis. In fact , the Natural Approach advocated the use ofTPR activi­ ties at the begilliling level of language learning, when "comprehensible input" is essential for triggering the acquisition of language. The Natural Approach was aimed at the goal of basic interpersonal communi­ cation skills, that is, everyday language situations-conversations, shopping, lis­ tening to the radio, and the like. The initial task of the teacher was to provide comprehensible input-spoken language that is understandable to the learner-or just a little beyond the learner's level. Learners did not need to say anything during this "silent period" until they felt ready to do so. The teacher was the source of the learners' input and the creator of an interesting and stimulating variety of classroom activities-commands, games, skits, and small-group work. 80 CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition The most controversial aspects of the Natural Approach were its "silent period" and its reliance on the notion of "comprehensible input." One could argue, with Richards & Rodgers (2001) and Gibbons (1985), that the delay of oral produc­ tion can be pushed too far and that at an early stage it is important for the teacher to step in and encourage students to talk. And determining just what we mean by "comprehensible" is exceedingly difficult (see Chapter 10 for further com­ ments). Language learning is an interactive process, and therefore an overreliance on the role of input at the expense of the stimulation of output could thwart the second language acquisition process. The Natural Approach, like TPR, also tended to lose its distinctive identity once a course was well under way. But, of course, we also can look at the Natural Approach and be reminded that sometimes we insist that students speak much too soon, thereby raising anxiety and lessening the possibility of further risk-taking as the learner tries to progress. And so, once again, your responsibility as a teacher is to choose the best of what others have experimented with, and to adapt those insights to your own situation. There is a good deal of insight to be gained, and intuition to be developed, from examining the merits of methods such as TPR and the Natural Approach. Those insights and intuitions can become a part of your own cautious, enlightened eclecticism. * * * * * In this chapter we have touched on a number of significant perspectives on questions about age and acquisition . In all this, it is important to maintain the dis­ tinction among the three types (CI-C2; C2-A2; CI-A2) of age and language com­ parisons mentioned at the beginning of the chapter. By considering three logically possible comparisons, unnecessary loopholes in reasoning should be minimized. While some answers to our questions are less than conclusive, in many cases research has been historically revealing. By operating on our collective under­ standing of the effects of age on acquisition, you can, with some confidence, con­ struct your own personal integrated understanding of that relationship, and how that relationship might hold fruitful implications for second language teaching. Above all else, I call attention to the balanced perspective offered by Scovel (1999, p. I): "The younger, the better" is a myth that has been fueled by media hype and, sometimes, "junk science." We are led to believe that chil­ dren are better at learning foreign languages without fully considering all the evidence and without looking at all aspects of acquisition. On at least several planes-literacy, vocabulary, pragmatics, schematic knowledge, and even syntax-adults have been shown to be superior learners. Perpetuating a younger-the-better myth in arguments about bilingual education and other forms of early language intervention does a disservice to our children and to our educational enterprise. CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition 81 We have seen in this chapter that there certainly appear to be some potential advantages to an early age for SLA, but there is absolutely no evidence that an adult cannot overcome all of those disadvantages save one, accent, and the latter is hardly the quintessential criterion for effective interpersonal communication. TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION Note: (I) individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion. 1. (G/C) Each group or pair should be assigned one of the seven common argu­ ments (page 55) cited by Stern (1970) that were used to justify analogies between first language learning and second language teaching. In the group, determine what is assumed or presupposed in the statement. Then reiterate the flaw in each analogy. Report conclusions back to the whole class for fur­ ther discussion. 2. (C) Are there students in the class who were exposed to, or learned, second languages before puberty' What were the circumstances, and what difficul­ ties, if any, were encountered? Has authentic pronunciation in the language remained to this day? 3. (C) Is there anyone in the class, or anyone who knows someone else, who started learning a second language after puberty and who nevertheless has an almost "perfect" accent? How did you assess whether the accent was perfect? Why do you suppose such a person was able to be so successful? 4. (I) In your words,write down the essence of Scovel's claim that the acquisi­ tion of a native accent around the age of puberty is an evolutionary leftover of sociobiological critical periods evident in many species of animals and birds. In view of widely accepted cross-cultural, cross-linguistic, and interra­ cial marriages today, how relevant is the biological claim for mating within the gene pool? 5. (G/C) In groups, try to determine the criteria for deciding whether or not someone is an authentic native speaker of your native language. In the process, consider the wide variety of "World Englishes" commonly spoken today. How clearly definitive can your criteria be? Talk about occupations, if any, in which a native accent is indispensable. Share with the rest of the class, and try to come to a consensus. 6. (G) In groups, talk about any cognitive or affective blocks you have experi­ enced in your own attempts to learn a second language. What could you do (or what could you have done) to overcome those barriers? 7. (I) Summarize the 10 "revisited" issues in your own words. How does your understanding of those issues, as they apply to second language learning, help you to formulate a better understanding of the total process of second language 82 CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition acquisition? Cite what you think might be some practical classroom implica­ tions of the 10 issues. 8. (C) Do you think it is worthwhile to teach children a second language in the classroom? If so, how might approaches and methods differ between a class of children and a class of adults? SUGGESTED READINGS Scovel, T. (2000). A critical review of the critical period hypothesis. Annual Review ofApplied Linguistics, 20,213-223. Singleton, D. (2001). Age and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 77-89. Singleton, D., & Ryan , L. (2004). Language acquisition: The age factor (2nd ed.). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. The two review articles by Thomas Scovel and David Singleton, in succes­ sive years of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, offer excellent overviews of issues and research on the critical Period hypothesis and questions about the relationship of age to acquisition. Singleton and Ryan's book gives updated and more detailed discussions of the same issues, with an excellent synopsis of first language evidence and second language evidence in two separate chapters. DeKeyser, R. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition . Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499-533. Bialystok, E. (2002). On the reliability of robustness:A reply to DeKeyser. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 481-488. Robert DeKeyser's article reports a study in which he examined hypotheses concerning the existence ofa critical periodfor second language acquisition. While he concludes that his data support his hypotheses, Ellen Bialystok argues otherwise, citing problems in DeKeyser's interpretation of the data. This exchange is a good example of the process of carrying out and inter­ preting research data, and of varying interpretations of the same data. Goldschneider, J., & DeKeyser, R. (2001). Explaining the "natural order of L2 mor­ pheme acquisition" in English : A meta-analysis of multiple determinants. Language Learning, 51, 1-50. For about two decades, researchers had virtually dismissed "natural order" claims as a dead issue, with no viable explanations for the possi­ bility of natural orders in the acquisition of morphemes. Here, the authors revive the debate by offering underlying principles that potentially explain order of acquisition. CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition 83 IANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE: JOURNAL ENTRY 3 Note: See pages 21 and 22 of Chapter 1 for general guidelines for writing a journal on a previous or concurrent language learning experience. • How good do you think your pronunciation of your foreign language is? How do you feel about your pronunciation-satisfied, dissatisfied, resigned, in need of improvement? Assuming you would not expect to be "per­ fect;' what steps can you take (or could you have taken) to improve your pro­ nunciation to a point of maximum clarity of articulation? • Given your current age (or your age when you were learning a foreign lan­ guage), do you feel you're too old to make much progress? Are you linguis­ tically "over the hill" with little hope of achieving your goals? Analyze the roots of your answers to these questions. • Children might have some secrets of success: not monitoring themselves too much, not analyzing grammar, not being too worried about their egos, shed­ ding inhibitions, not letting the native language interfere much. In what way did you, or could you , put those secrets to use in your own learning? • In learning a foreign language, were any aspects (such as listening discrimi­ nation exercises, pronunciation drills, learning grammar rules, small group conversations, reading, or writing) easier than others for you? Analyze what made certain procedures easier than others. • Do you think you might have some advantages over children in learning a foreign language? Speculate on what those advantages might be. Then make a list of strategies you could use to capitalize on those advantages. PART II PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS CHAPTER 4 HUMAN LEARNING SO FAR, in outlining a theory of second language acquisition, we have discovered that the cognitive domain of human behavior is of key importance in the acquisition of both a first and a second language. The processes of perceiving, attending, storing, and recalling are central to the task of internalizing a language. In this chapter we focus specifically on cognitive processes by examining the general nature of human learning. In the first part of the chapter, different learning theories are outlined. Then, we deal with some other universal learning principles. Finally, some current thoughts about aptitude and intelligence are presented. LEARNING AND TRAINING How do human beings learn? Are there certain basic principles of learning that apply to all learning acts? Is one theory of learning "better" than another? If so, how can you evaluate the usefulness of a theory? These and other important ques­ tions need to be answered in order to achieve an integrated understanding of second language acquisition. Before tackling theories of human learning directly, consider the following sit­ uation as an illustration of sorting out cognitive considerations in any task in which you are trying to determine what it means to c