杨忠《语言学概论》笔记

Chapter1IntroductionⅠ.Whatislanguage?1.Differentdefinitionsoflanguage(1)Languageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)(2)[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)(3)Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.2.Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.3.Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Ⅱ.Featuresofhumanlanguage1.Creativity(1)Languageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.(2)Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.2.Duality(1)Languagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.(2)Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.(3)Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.3.Arbitrariness(1)Therelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.(2)Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.4.Displacement(1)Thereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.(2)Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.5.Culturaltransmission(1)Culturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.(2)Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.6.InterchangeabilityAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.7.Reflexivity(1)Humanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.(2)Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.Ⅲ.Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-functions1.TheideationalfunctionToidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.2.TheinterpersonalfunctionTogetalonginacommunity.3.ThetextualfunctionToformatext.Ⅳ.Typesoflanguage1.Geneticclassification2.Typologicalclassification(1)Analyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnamese(2)Syntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGerman(3)Agglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkishⅤ.Themythoflanguage–languageorigin1.TheBiblicalaccountLanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.2.Thebow-wowtheoryLanguagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.3.Thepooh-poohtheoryLanguagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.4.Theyo-he-hotheoryLanguagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.5.TheevolutiontheoryLanguageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.Ⅵ.Whatislinguistics?1.Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.(1)Observing&questioning(2)Formulatinghypotheses(3)Verifyingthehypotheses(4)Proposingatheory2.Branchesoflinguistics(1)Internalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemantics(2)Externalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionsPragmaticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguisticsNeurolinguistics3.Featuresoflinguistics(1)Descriptive(2)Dealingwithspokenlanguage(3)SynchronicChapter2PhoneticsⅠ.Whatisphonetics?1.Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.2.Sub-branchesofphonetics(1)Articulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsounds(2)Acousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds(3)Auditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundsⅡ.Thespeechorgans1.Wheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?Fromthelung2.Whatisthefunctionofvocalcords?Controllingtheairstream3.Whatarethecavities?(1)Oralcavity(2)Pharyngealcavity(3)NasalcavityⅢ.Transcriptionofspeechsounds1.UnitsofrepresentationSegments(theindividualsounds)2.Phoneticsymbols(1)ThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).(2)TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbracketstodistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.(3)Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.Ⅳ.Descriptionofspeechsounds1.DescriptionofEnglishconsonants(1)Generalfeature:obstruction(2)CriteriaofconsonantdescriptionPlacesofarticulationMannersofarticulationVoicingofarticulation(3)PlacesofarticulationThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]Labiodental:[f][v]Interdental:[][]Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]Palatal:[][][t][d][j]Velar:[k][g][]Glottal:[h](4)MannersofarticulationThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.Stops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricatives:[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]Affricates:[t][d]Liquids:[l][r]Glides:[w][j]Nasals:[m][n][](5)VoicingofarticulationThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.VoicedsoundsVoicelesssounds2.DescriptionofEnglishvowels(1)Generalfeature:withoutobstruction(2)CriteriaofvoweldescriptionA.PartofthetonguethatisraisedFrontCentralBackB.ExtenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalateHighMidLowC.KindofopeningmadeatthelipsD.Positionofthesoftpalate(3)Singlevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongsⅤ.Phoneticfeaturesandnaturalclasses1.Classesofsoundsthatshareafeatureorfeaturesarecallednaturalclasses.2.Majorclassfeaturescanspecifysegmentsacrosstheconsonant-vowelboundary.3.Classificationofsegmentsbyfeaturesisthebasisonwhichvariationsofsoundscanbeanalyzed.Chapter3PhonologyⅠ.Whatisphonology?1.Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.2.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.3.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.(1)Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?(2)Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?(3)WhatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguageⅡ.Phonemesandallophones1.Aphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.2.Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.3.Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.Ⅲ.Discoveringphonemes1.Contrastivedistribution–phonemes(1)Ifsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.(2)Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.A.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.B.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.(3)TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.(4)SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.2.Complementarydistribution–allophones(1)Soundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.(2)Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.3.FreevariationIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Ⅳ.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeatures1.Featuresthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.2.Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.Ⅴ.Phonologicalrules1.Phonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.2.Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.3.Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.4.TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.A.[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_B.[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_Ⅵ.Syllablestructure1.Asyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.2.Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.3.Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.Ⅶ.Sequenceofphonemes1.Nativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogether.2.SomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish.Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.3.Sequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalgaps.4.Whennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.Ⅷ.Suprasegmentalfeatures1.Featuresthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.2.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.3.Stress(1)Stressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.(2)Stressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.(3)Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.(4)Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.4.Intonation(1)Whenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.(2)Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.(3)Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.(4)InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.5.Tone(1)Toneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.(2)Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.(3)Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Chapter4MorphologyⅠ.Whatismorphology?1.Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.2.Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.3.Morphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.Ⅱ.Morphemesandallomorphs1.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.2.Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.3.“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletives(1)Somecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.(2)Someverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.Ⅲ.Freeandboundmorphemes1.Somemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.2.Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.3.Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.4.Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).Ⅳ.Inflexionalandderivationalmorphemes1.InflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.2.Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.(1)Englishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.(2)Somelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.(3)Theprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.Ⅴ.Conclusion:classificationofmorphemesMorphemes(1)Freemorphemes(2)BoundmorphemesA.InflexionalB.Derivational:affixesPrefixes:-s,-’s,-er,-est,-ing,-ed,-sSuffixesⅥ.Formationofnewwords1.Derivation(1)Derivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.(2)Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.(3)Derivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.(4)Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.(5)SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.2.Compounding(1)Compoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.(2)ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.(3)Incompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.(4)Themeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.3.Conversion(1)Conversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.(2)Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.4.Clipping(1)Clippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.(2)ClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.(3)Someclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.5.BlendingBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).6.Back-formationBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix-sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe-sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.7.Acronymsandabbreviations(1)Acronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.(2)Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.(3)Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.8.EponymsEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.9.Coinage(1)Coinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.(2)Thiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.Chapter5SyntaxⅠ.Whatissyntax?1.ThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or“settingouttogether”.2.Traditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflexions,arearrangedtoshowconnexionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.3.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatanalyzesthestructureofsentences.Ⅱ.Whatisasentence?1.Syntaxistheanalysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.2.Asequencecanbeeitherwell-formedorill-formed.Nativespeakersofalanguageknowintuitivelywhatstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhatareungrammatical.Ⅲ.Knowledgeofsentencestructure1.StructuralambiguityStructuralambiguityisoneormorestring(s)ofwordshas/havemorethanonemeaning.Forexample,thesentenceTomsaidhewouldcomeyesterdaycanbeinterpretedindifferentways.2.WordorderDifferentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings.Forexample,withthewordsTom,loveandMary,wemaysayTomlovesMaryorMarylovesTom.3.GrammaticalrelationsNativespeakersknowwhatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly.Forexample,inTheboatsarenotbigenoughandWedon’thaveenoughboats,thewordenoughisrelatedtodifferentwordsinthetwosentences.4.RecursionThesamerulecanbeusedrepeatedlytocreateinfinitesentences.Forexample,Iknowthatyouarehappy.HeknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.SheknowsthatheknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.5.SentencerelatednessSentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated.6.Syntacticcategories(1)Asyntacticcategoryisaclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:Thechildfoundtheknife.Apolicemanfoundtheknife.Themanwhojustleftherefoundtheknife.Hefoundtheknife.(2)Alltheitalicizedpartsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategorycallednounphrase(NP).Thenounphrasesinthesesentencesfunctionassubject.Theknife,alsoanounphrase,functionsasobject.Ⅳ.Traditionalgrammar1.Intraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassifiedintopartsofspeech.2.Sentencesareanalyzedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:subjects,objects,verbs(predicates),predicatives,....3.Compulsoryelementsofasentence:subject,verb,object,complement,adverbial...4.Nouns:number,case,gender...5.Verbs:tense,aspect,voice...6.Adjectivesandadverbs:comparativeandsuperlativedegrees7.Agreementinnumber/person/gender8.Parsing:tryingtomakedetailedanalysisinstructureⅤ.Structuralgrammar1.Structuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththeinter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.2.Formclass(1)Formclassisawiderconceptthanpartofspeechintraditionalgrammar.(2)Linguisticunitswhichcanappearinthesameslotaresaidtobeinthesameformclass.Forexample,a(n),the,my,that,every,etc.canbeplacedbeforenounsinEnglishsentences.Thesewordsfallintooneformclass.(3)Theselinguisticunitsareobservedtohavethesamedistribution.3.Immediateconstituent(IC)analysis(1)Structuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofanalysis.(2)Asentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentanalysis.(3)Examples:Oldmenandwomen:old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomen.The|||little||girl|speaks||French.(4)Inthisway,sentencestructureisanalyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inotherwords,ICanalysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.Iwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.(5)TwoadvantagesofICanalysis:A.Itcananalyzesomeambiguities.B.Itshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence.Ⅵ.Transformational-generative(TG)grammar1.BackgroundandthegoalofTGgrammar(1)Chomsky(1957)–grammaristheknowledgeofnativespeakers.AdequacyofobservationAdequacyofdescriptionAdequacyofexplanation(2)WritingaTGgrammarmeansworkingouttwosetsofrules–phrasestructurerulesandtransformationrules–whicharefollowedbyspeakersofthelanguage.(3)TGgrammarmustaccountforallandonlygrammaticalsentences.2.SyntacticcategoriesNounPhrase(NP)VerbPhrase(VP)Sentence(S)Determiner(Det)Adjective(Adj)Pronoun(Pro)Verb(V)AuxiliaryVerb(Aux)PrepositionalPhrase(PP)Adverb(Adv)3.Phrasestructure(PS)rulesS→NPVP(Det)(Adj)NNP→ProVP→(Aux)V(NP)(PP)PP→PNP4.Treediagrams(omit)5.RecursionandtheinfinitudeoflanguageScontainsNPandVPandthatSmaybeaconstituentofNPandVP.NPandPPcanbemutuallyinclusive.Ifphrasalcategoriesappearonbothsidesofthearrowinphrasestructurerules,therulesarerecursive.Recursiverulescanbeappliedagainandagain,andthephrasestructurecangrowendlessly.6.Sub-categorizationofthelexicon.Theprocessofputtingwordsofthesamelexicalcategoryintosmallerclassesaccordingtotheirsyntacticcharacteristicsiscalledsub-categorization.7.Transformationalrules(T-rules)(1)ParticlemovementT-ruleJohnturnedthemachineoff.Johnturnedoffthemachine.(2)ReplacementT-ruleJohnbeatTom.HebeatTom.Thehouseneedsrepairing(toberepaired).(3)InsertionT-ruleAfishisswimminginthepond.Thereisafishswimminginthepond.(4)DeletionT-ruleTheycameinand(they)satdown.(5)CopyingT-ruleHeiscoming,isn’the?Hehasfinishedhishomework,hasn’the?(6)ReflexivizationT-ruleIwashme(myself).8.TGgrammaraccountsforthementalprocessofourspeaking.Ⅶ.Systematic-functionalgrammar1.Backgroundandthegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammarM.A.K.Halliday(1)Languageisasystemofmeaningpotentialandanetworkofmeaningaschoices.(2)Meaningdeterminesform,notviceversa.Meaningisrealizedthroughforms.(3)Thegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaristoseehowfunctionandmeaningarerealizedthroughforms.(4)Thethreemeta-functionsoflanguageA.IdeationalfunctionB.Inter