民主转型期的俄罗斯选举和选举制度

民主转型期的俄罗斯选举和选举 制度 关于办公室下班关闭电源制度矿山事故隐患举报和奖励制度制度下载人事管理制度doc盘点制度下载 白先愚 , 2011-03-05 22:20:43 来源:《当代世界与社会主义》2005年第2期 [ 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 提要] 俄罗斯议会和总统选举制度自初步确立以来，一直处在不断的修改补充之中。民主转型是俄罗斯选举制度的基本特点，超级总统制对选举制度的发展构成了最主要的制约因素。 [关键词] 俄罗斯;民主转型;选举制度 [分类号] D5 [文献标识码] A [文章编号] 1005-6505(2005)02-0021-05 自戈尔巴乔夫推行政治改革开始，苏联开启了民主化的道路。随着苏联的解体，独立后的俄罗斯正式迈入了民主转型期。在十多年的进程中，俄罗斯在不断改进中确立起了作为民主化重要内容的一整套选举制度，并成功进行了多次总统、议会和地方选举。俄罗斯的选举和选举制度分为全国性和地方性两个层面，全国性层面又分为议会选举和议会选举制度、总统选举和总统选举制度。这两个选举体系既遵循宪法及联邦法律中规定的有关选举制度的一般原则，又相对独立运作。作为一个正在经历民主转型的传统大国和强国，俄罗斯的做法和经历，显然具有借鉴意义，值得深入研究和思考。 一、俄罗斯议会选举制度的演进与历届议会选举 俄罗斯真正意义上的民主选举议会肇始于1990年5月进行的第一届俄罗斯人民代 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 大会选举。1989年，苏联通过差额选举直接产生了苏 联最高国家机关苏联人民代表大会。随后，各加盟共和国也相继展开了各自的地方议会选举。1989年10月，俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃通过了《俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国人integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 民代表选举法》。该选举法确定了选举的普遍、直接、平等与无记名投票原则、划分选区原则、被选举人资格的规定、候选人提名程序等一系列民主选举的原则和程序。随后这些内容又写进了《俄罗斯联邦—俄罗斯宪法(基本法)》，从而在俄罗斯宪法条文中第一次出现了有关民主选举制度与人民代表地位的条款，初步确立起了俄罗斯联邦国家立法机关的选举体制。 根据人民代表选举法，1990年5月俄罗斯选出了俄罗斯第一次人民代表大会的1068名代表，其中900名在全联邦境内按人口数量划分的选区中由选民直接选举产生，168名根据不同的代表名额在联邦各主体内选举产生。代表大会再分别从这两种代表中选出人数相等的代表相应组成两院最高苏维埃——共和国苏维埃和民族苏维埃。俄罗斯联邦最高立法机关由此正式从一院制改为两院制。需要指出的是，俄罗斯人民代表大会仍然是最高国家权力机关，最高苏维埃集立法、命令、监督于一身，还具有很多执行机关的职能，还不是完全意义上的议会。 苏联解体后，围绕独立后的俄罗斯建立什么样的国家权力体系，即实行议会制还是总统制，俄罗斯联邦总统与最高苏维埃之间展开了激烈的争论，并发展成为严重的政治对抗。最终在1993年10月，俄罗斯总统叶利钦动用武力，废除了俄罗斯民选的第一届人民代表大会，彻底取消了苏联时期建立起来的苏维埃制度。1993年10月1日和11日，叶利钦以总统令的形式分别签署并颁布了《1993年俄罗斯联邦会议国家杜马代表选举条例》和《1993年俄罗斯联邦会议联邦委员会选举条例》，作为新的国家代表机关选举的基础。两院选举条例继承了已宣布失效的《俄罗斯人民代表选举法》的选举普遍平等原则、无记名投票原则、建立选民名册原则以及有关被选举人资格的规定等内容，并对选区的划分、提名候选人的程序、候选人的权利和义务、竞选宣传和经费的来源与使用、统计选票等问 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 做了更加详细的规定。两院选举条例的重大变化表现在:一是对俄罗斯国家权力机关的构成和选举方式做出了新规定。新的俄罗斯联邦议会将由国家杜马integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, (下院)和联邦委员会(上院)两院组成。国家杜马代表共450名，一半按单名制方式与多数代表制原则由选民直接选举产生，一半则在全联邦范围内从参加竞选并获得5%以上选票支持的选举联合组织和选举联盟 中，根据得票多少，按比例选出;联邦委员会将从89个联邦主体中按多数原则各选出2名代表组成。二是第一次提出了“混合式代表选举制”的思想，即1/2国家杜马代表将在全联盟选区按比例代表制选举产生的有关规定，并相应提出了“选举联合组织”的概念，允许合法政党与政治运动在议会选举的竞选期间组成政党联盟参加议会选举，从而为俄罗斯各类政党和选举联盟通过选举直接进入议会创造了法律前提。 1993年12月12日，按照两院选举条例选举产生了俄罗斯联邦第一届联邦议会，作为临时议会，本届联邦议会任期两年。这次选民的投票率 为54?8%，在单名制选区共选出219名代表，其中137名代表是从各选区选民提名的候选人中选出，其余82名代表分属28个政党或选举联合组织;在全联邦选区，有36个选举联合组织提出了自己的候选人名单，其中只有13个在中央选举委员会获得了登记。根据选举结果，有俄罗斯自由民主党(59席)、俄罗斯民主选择(40席)、俄罗斯联邦共产党(32席)等8个选举联合组织获得了超过投票总数5%的选票，直接进入了杜马。[1]在举行俄罗斯联邦议会选举的同一天，俄罗斯还就联邦宪法草案举行了全民公决，并最终通过了俄罗斯联邦宪法。新宪法确立议会是俄罗斯联邦的 代表与立法机关，享有立法权，并纳入了两院选举条例规定的选举制度基本原则。 1994年12月6日，叶利钦总统签署并颁布了《俄罗斯联邦公民选举权基本保障法》。该法以联邦法律的形式重申了两院代表选举条例的主要内容，并对“选举联合组织”进行了重新界定，第一次提出了“选举联盟”的概念，是俄罗斯联邦宪法通过以后第一部与国家杜马选举有关的正式文件，成为杜马选举的主要法律依据之一。它的颁布标志着俄罗斯联邦议会选举制的初步确立。 integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 1995年6月，俄罗斯国家杜马通过了第一部《俄罗斯联邦会议国家杜马代表选举法》，作为第 二届杜马选举的法律依据。该法保留了1993年两院选举条例的主要内容，并根据宪法对某些内容进行了修改和补充。该法特别强调了选民参加选举的自愿原则，将宣布举行新一届国家杜马选举的权力正式赋予了联邦总统，规定选举日定在上届国家杜马任期届满后的第一个星期日。该法还规定每个选举联合组织或选举联盟在俄罗斯联邦中央委员会登记其全部候选人名单时，必须提交20万名以上的选民支持签名，而且，在每个联邦主体征集到的选民支持签名数，不得超过总数的7%。1995年12月17日，第二届杜马选举产 生。与第一届杜马选举相比，这届杜马选举呈现出一些新特点。一是选民选举热情上升，选民投票率达到64%，参选的政治组织也明显增多，在全联邦选区中参加竞选的政党和选举联盟达到71个，其中43个获得了中央选举委员会的登记，是第一届议会选举的两倍多。二是选票过于集中，仅有俄罗斯共产党(99席)、俄罗斯自由民主党(50席)、“我们的家园—俄罗斯”全俄政治运动(45席)、“亚博卢”选举联盟(31席)4个选举联合组织和选举联盟获得了投票总数5%以上的选票而直接进入议会。三是代表职业化与年轻化增强，据统计，第二届国家杜马代表平均年龄47岁，几乎所有代表都受过高等教育，其中1/3以上的代表曾当选过第一届国家杜马代表。四是左派营垒占据优势，俄罗斯共产党以总席位157席成为杜马第一大党，以俄共为首的左派营垒控制的席位超过半数。[2] 1999年6月2日，俄罗斯国家杜马通过了第二部国家杜马代表选举法作为第三届杜马选举的法律依据。该法在保留1995年国家杜马代表选举法基本内容的基础上，重点针对有关比例代表制问题，尤其是有关只有获投票总数5%以上选票的政党有资格进入议会的规定的社会争议，对国家杜马议席的分配方法做了某些修改，适度放宽了选举联合组织和选举联盟进入国家杜马的条件。新选举法规定，如获投票总数5%以上的选举联合组织和选举联盟所得选票之和小于投票integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 总数50%时，则获投票总数3%以上的选举联合组织或选举联盟有权参加杜马席位的分配;如某一选举联合组织或选举联盟获投票总数50%以上，而其他参选的选举联合组织和选举联盟都没有能超过5%的最低得票限额，则所有参选的选举联合组织和选举联盟都可以参加议会席位的分配。 此举目的在于保障有两个以上的选举联合组织或选举联盟能够进入议会，维护俄罗斯的多党制议会。1999年12月26日，俄罗斯选举产生了第三届国家杜马。在全联邦选区选举中，有俄共等六个选举联合组织、选举联盟获得参加投票选民总数5%以上的选票。这届议会选举的最大变化是，尽管俄罗斯共产党仍以总议席113席占据议会第一大党位置，但它的政治优势已经明显下降。亲政府的“团结”联盟与“右翼力量联盟”的联合席位已经远远超过了以俄共为首的左派阵营，政府从而可以轻易地获得议会多数的支持，提出并通过有利于自己的法律法规。[3] 2002年12月25日，俄罗斯国家杜马颁布了第三部国家杜马选举法作为第四届杜马选举的法律依据。随着2001年7月俄罗斯历史上第一部《政党法》的颁布和实施，俄罗斯全境的政党、政治性社会联合组织和群众组织性运动由原来的上千个锐减为数十个，多党制从初步确立趋向成熟。顺应这一变化，新选举法强化了政党在选举中的作用和责任。该法规定，只有政党或者政党及其他社会联合组织结成的选举联盟才有权提出全联邦代表候选人名单和单名制选区的代表候选人;在俄国家杜马全联邦选区选举中所获选票超过参加投票选民总数5%选票而进入国家杜马的政党，可以直接在俄中央选举委员会登记其总统候选人，无需再征集200万选民支持签名。而所获得选票数低于5%的政党、选举联盟，则必须征集到200万选民支持签名，才能在中央委员会将其总统候选人登记为正式候选人;在俄国家杜马全联邦选区获得参加投票选民总数3%以上选票的政党，integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 或者在单名制选区有12人当选国家杜马代表的政党，均可以获得国家的财政拨款支持。 2003年12月进行的俄罗斯第四届国家杜马选举，是在俄政党格局发生巨大变化的形势下进行的。自普京上台以来，俄共就因为受到当局打压和内部发生分裂而陷入重建以来最深刻的危机。而拥护普京的三大中派组织“团结”、“祖国”和“全俄罗斯”在联合建立“统一俄罗斯”党后，力量急剧壮大。在全联邦选区选举中，“统一俄罗 斯”党获得37?57%选票，俄共只获得12?61%。加上单名制选区的席位，“统一俄罗斯”获得222个议席，接近半数，再加上其他亲总统议员，拥护普京的议员已超过议会2/3多数。[4] 二、总统选举制度的变化与总统选举 俄罗斯第一次民主选举总统是在苏联解体前夕的1991年6月12日。1990年3月14日，苏联第三次人民代表大会通过了关于设立苏联总统职位和修改补充苏联宪法法。该法在苏联历史上首次确认了总统制，并对总统选举制度做了规定。鉴于苏联当时政局动荡，第三次苏联人民代表大会在法律通过的第二天选举产生了苏联历史上首位总统，戈尔巴乔夫当选。 为了与联盟中央抗衡并改变国家权力体系结构，在时任俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃主席叶利钦的极力主张下，俄罗斯最高苏维埃决定在1991年3月17日进行全联盟就“是否保留苏联”的问题进行全民公决的同时，在俄罗斯境内就有关设立总统职位问题举行全民公决。全民公决的结果，有52%的选民支持在俄罗斯实行总统制。1991年4月24日，俄罗斯最高苏维埃通过了《俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国总统选举法》和《俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国总统法》。由于当时的当务之急是尽快选出俄罗斯总统，这两部法律基 本承袭了关于设立苏联总统职位和修改补充苏联宪法法的内容，没有制定出新的条款。这两部法律规定，integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 总统由具有选举权的公民根据普遍、平等、直接、无记名投票的方式选举产生，每届任期五年，连选连任，但连续任职不得超过两届以上。年满35周岁以上65周岁以下的拥有选举权的俄罗斯公民，可以当选俄罗斯联邦总统。设立副总统一职，副总统候选人由总统候选人提名，两人作为联盟者一同参加竞选。总统候选人的提名权，属于已按照法定程序在俄司法部登记的全俄一级的政党、社会组织、群众运动，这些组织必须为自己推荐的候选人征集到10万个选民支持签名，才能在中央选举委员会将其登记为正式总统候选人。总统选举实行差额选举，采用由选民直接投票的绝对多数制，即在选民参选率过半，且有两名以上候选人参选的情况下，所得选票超过投票总数半数以上的候选人当选;如所有候选人所得选票均未超过总票数的半数，则在第一轮选举后15天内，按相对多数制进行第二轮选举，得票最多的候选人当选。随后，有关俄罗斯总统制和总统选举的内容作为对宪法修改与补充被写进了俄罗斯联邦宪法，俄罗斯总统制与总统选举制以国家根本大法的形式被固定下来。 根据俄罗斯总统选举法的规定，1991年6月12日俄罗斯举行了第一次总统民主选举，俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃主席叶利钦、原苏联部长会议主席雷日科夫和苏联自由民主党主席日里诺夫斯基等六人获得了中央选举委员会的登记，被确定为总统候选人。74?7%的选民参加了投票，叶利钦众望所归，在第一轮投票中即以57?3%的得票率当选。[5] 1993年12月12日，俄罗斯联邦举行全民投票，通过了俄罗斯独立后的第一部宪法，正式确定了俄罗斯实行总统制的联邦国家体制。该宪法在有关总统选举和选举制度方面，在继承原有相关法律内容的基础上，相应进行了一些调整，对总统候选人的资格做了新规定:凡年满35岁，在俄罗斯联邦定居10年以上的俄罗斯居民，可以当选俄罗斯联邦总统;俄罗斯联邦总统的任期也由五年改为四integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 年。同时，在宪法的过渡性条款里规定，依照旧宪法选出的俄罗斯总统可以行使新宪法规定的权力直至原有任期届满。 1995年5月17日，俄罗斯联邦通过了独立以后的第一部总统选举法，将总统选举的宪法原则具体化，为1996年总统选举提供法律依据。该法对宪法中有关总统选举的基本原则做了补充，增加了公民自愿参加总统选举、总统候选人建立个人竞选基金以及准备和举行总统选举公开等原 则。该法规定总统的选举程序包括:划分选区与成立各级选举委员会;进行选民登记，建立选民名册;提名与登记总统候选人;总统候选人之间的竞选活动;投票与统计选举结果等。其中，将1991年总统选举法中有关“总统候选人的提名权属于全俄性政党、社会组织和群众运动”改为“选举联合组织、选举联盟或者由100名以上选民组成的倡议小组有权提名总统候选人”。同时还规定，每个被提名的总统候选人必须征得100万名以上选民的签名支持，在每个联邦主体征集到的选民签名不得超过所征集选民签名总数的7%。该法取消了副总统的设置，并首次规定了总统候选人竞 选基金的最高限额。另外，该选举法还列举了宣布总统选举无效的几种情况，规定:当参加投票的选民没有达到选民名册中登记选民的半数以上;获投票最多候选人的得票数低于“反对所有候选人”得票;在选举和计票中有侵犯选民自由表达意愿的行为;1/4以上分区选民的选举属于无效选举或法院做出了有关选举无效的判决后，本次总统选举将被认为无效，并要按照规定程序重新举行选举。 1996年6月16日，俄罗斯举行了作为一个独立主权国家之后的第一次总统选举。这次选举是在俄国内左右两大政治势力斗争日益尖锐的形势 下进行的，双方利用选举的时机，展开了充分的较量。此次共有俄罗斯联邦在任总统叶利钦、俄共主席久加诺夫、自由民主党主席日里诺夫斯基以及前苏联总统戈尔巴乔夫、退役将军列别得等十一位候选人获得中央选举委员会的登记。在第一轮投票中，没有一位候选人获得参加投票选民半数以上的选票。7月3日，对第一轮投票中integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 得票最多的叶利钦和久加诺夫进行了第二轮投票，叶利钦以53?8%的选票当选俄罗斯第二届总统。[6] 1999年12月1日俄罗斯国家杜马通过了第三部总统选举法。这部新总统选举法增加了境内外的俄罗斯公民权利平等原则，选举委员会保障 选民获得真实信息原则，被法院宣布为无行为能力的人或依照法院判决被监禁在剥夺自由场所里的人不享有选举权原则，禁止外国公民、外国法人、国际组织、国际社会运动或无国籍人士参加竞选运动原则等总统选举原则。该法特别增加了有关提前选举总统的内容，规定俄罗斯总统自动辞职后两周，由联邦委员会宣布提前举行总统大选;选举日期定在自总统辞职之日起三个月内的最后一个星期日;在提前举行总统选举的情况下，竞选活动的期限将缩短1/4;如联邦委员会拒绝宣布提前举行总统选举，则总统选举将由中央选举委员会直接负责进行，选举日也将定在自总统辞职之日起三个月后的第一个或第二个星期日。新总统选举法还专门对候选人在竞选活动中的某些禁止行为做了补充规定:如果总统候选人提供的个人材料不属实(包括本人及其子女的个人财产情况)，或在其被正式登记之前进行了与竞选活动有关的活动，以及在选举活动中从事过贿赂选民、赢利性商业活动、利用职务之便进行竞选等非法活动，则选举委员会将不予以登记，或取消其总统候选人的资格。新选举法对由联邦预算拨款的竞选基金的使用也做了某些限制，规定在总统选举中所获选票未达到投票总数3%的候选人，选举结束后须将本人联邦预算部分的竞选基金如数退还。 1999年12月31日，叶利钦突然宣布辞去俄罗斯联邦总统职位。依照新选举法的有关规定，联邦委员会于2000年1月5日举行特别会议，决定提前进行俄罗斯联邦总统选举。2000年3月26日举行第三届俄罗斯联邦总统选举。代总统普京、俄共领导人久加诺夫等十一名总统候选人获得了中央选举委员会的登记。68?74%的选民参加了投票，获得中派、中右派、右派力量支持，在担任总integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 理和代总统期间因推行强硬的内外政策而获得国内民众广泛支持的普京，在第一轮投票中就获得了过半数的选票(52?94%)，当选俄罗斯联邦总统。[7] 2003年1月1日，普京批准了俄罗斯第四部《俄罗斯联邦总统选举法》。该法强调了政党在总统选举中的责任和作用，规定只有符合2001年政党法规定的政党才拥有总统候选人的提名权;在2003年12月第三届俄罗斯国家杜马全联邦选区选举中所获得选票超过参加投票选民总数5%以上选票而进入国家杜马的政党，可以免除为其提名的总统征集200万选民支持签名的义务。该法还显著提高了选举基金的最高限额，规定为25000万卢布，比上一届选举提高了十倍。该法还规定第四届俄罗斯联邦总统选举的结果，将根据各选举分区选举委员会的笔录(证明文件)进行确定，以消除在选举结果问题上可能发生的争议。 2004年3月14日举行的俄罗斯第四届总统选举是一次没有悬念的选举。普京在过去四年的任期里政绩显赫，深受国民爱戴，声望无人能及，还未选举当选就几乎成了定局，因而其他获得中央选举委员会登记的总统候选人都是俄罗斯政坛上名不见经传的人物。选举结果，普京以71?2%的得票率在第一轮选举中轻松胜出，连任俄罗斯联邦总统。[8] 三、俄罗斯选举制度的基本特点和发展障碍 俄罗斯的议会和总统选举制度自初步确立至今，已有十多年的历史，从其发展变化以及实际运作过程来看，民主转型是其基本的特点。这表现在，一方面，其基本架构，基本原则，选民和候选人的资格、权利、义务，选举程序等，都已经按照民主选举的基本 要求 对教师党员的评价套管和固井爆破片与爆破装置仓库管理基本要求三甲医院都需要复审吗 通过宪法和法律的形式逐步得到确立和完善。比如俄罗斯总统选举法就规定了总统选举的基本原则，包括选举权的普遍性原则，即选举日年满18岁的俄罗斯联邦公民都享有选举俄罗斯联邦总统、参与提出俄罗斯联邦总统候选人、参加竞选活动、参与监督俄罗斯联邦总统选举的举行情况、参integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 加选举委员会的工作等权利。但是，被法院宣布为无行为能力的人或依照法院判决被监禁在剥夺自由场所里的人不享有选举权;选举权的平等原则，即俄境内的每个公民在一个地方只有一个投票权，在准备和举行俄罗斯联邦总统选举期间，在俄罗斯联邦境外居住或逗留的俄罗斯公民享有同其他俄公民平等的选举权;直接选举原则，俄罗斯联邦总统由拥有选举权的俄公民直接投票选举产生;差额选举原则，当选票上有2名以上俄罗斯联邦总统候选人时，选举才可以进行;以及无记名投票原则、选民自由和自愿参加总统选举原则、准备和举行总统选举公开原则、选举委员会保障选民获得真实信息原则、总统候选人建立个人竞选基金原则、总统候选人如实申 报财产收入原则等等。这些原则是作为民主选举的基本要素而必须确立和遵循的。事实上，已经进行的四次议会和总统选举，也正是在遵循这些原则的前提下进行的。因此，俄罗斯选举制度的取向是民主的，实际运作也是基本符合民主要求的。 另一方面，俄罗斯的选举制度又是处在不断的调整中的。自俄罗斯初步确立民主选举制度以来，分别制定了四部关于国家杜马选举的条例和法律以及四部关于总统选举的法律。这种对法律的频繁修改和补充，折射出确立完整而固定的选举制度的艰巨性和复杂性。而从某种意义上说， 在民主制度尚未充分巩固之前，在每一次选举前颁布一部选举法，既进一步确定基本的原则，又根据不同的实际要求修改增加新的内容，不失为一种灵活而又不丧失原则和方向的做法。比如，1999年颁布的总统选举法所做的关于提前选举总统的规定，固然有为叶利钦辞职和顺利交班做准备的考虑，但这毕竟使得选举法更加完善，为今后处理类似事宜奠定了法律前提。又比如，普京在别斯兰人质事件发生后，为保证国家的统一，加强国家权力机关，对付恐怖主义，提出进行政治体制改革，改变国家杜马选举制度，取消代表一半由政党提名、由全联邦选区按比例制产生，一半由各 地区以单名制选举产生的做法，改为单一的政党参选制，即实行国家杜马完全由全国integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, 性政党按得票比例提名产生。西方一些媒体和政界人士将此举指责为“从民主制度倒退”。事实上，这一改革是有益于强化政党政治的发展的。 十多年来，在俄罗斯选举过程中，确实存在金钱政治、灰色政治交易、收买选票等现象，但这些都不是俄罗斯选举制度发展的主要障碍。其主要障碍来自俄罗斯的现行政治制度。尽管俄罗斯的制度设计遵循“分权制衡”原则，立法、行政、司法各自独立、相互牵制，但真正实行的是超级总统制，总统处于议会、政府、法院之上，拥有广泛而巨 大的权力。议会无法监督总统，甚至对政府的约束力也只限于批准预算。这样的制度安排，严重制约了政党政治的发展。而政党力量微弱，对选举制度发展完善是有害的，毕竟在民主制度下，政党是选举最活跃而有效的因素。 注释: [1][2][6]潘德礼主编《俄罗斯十年》世界知识出版社2003年版第113页，第114页，第127页。 [3]刘向文《俄罗斯转型期国家杜马的选举制度》，参见http:www.zzu.ehu.cn. [4][8]白平浩主编《选举风暴》中央党校出版社2005年版第65页，第67页。 [5][7]刘向文《谈俄罗斯联邦总统的选举制度》，参见 http:www.zzu.ehu.cn. [作者单位]中央党校科社部。 [责任编辑:文慧] integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed, integrated energy, chemicals and textile Yibin city, are the three core pillars of the industry. In 2014, the wuliangye brand value to 73.58 billion yuan, the city's liquor industry slip to stabilise. Promoting deep development of integrated energy, advanced equipment manufacturing industry, changning district, shale gas production capacity reached 277 million cubic metres, built the country's first independent high-yield wells and pipelines in the first section, the lead in factory production and supply to the population. 2.1-3 GDP growth figure 2.1-4 Yibin, Yibin city, Yibin city, fiscal revenue growth 2.1.4 topography terrain overall is Southwest, North-Eastern State. Low mountains and hills in the city landscape as the main ridge-and-Valley, pingba small fragmented nature picture for "water and the second land of the seven hills". 236 meters to 2000 meters above sea level in the city, low mountain, 46.6% hills 45.3%, pingba only 8.1%. 2.1.5 development of Yibin landscapes and distinctive feature in the center of the city, with limitations, and spatial structure of typical zonal group, 2012-cities in building with an area of about 76.2km2. From city-building situation, "old town-the South Bank" Center construction is lagging behind, disintegration of the old city is slow, optimization and upgrading, quality public service resources are still heavily concentrated in the old town together. Southbank Centre has not been formed, functions of the service area space is missing. Meanwhile, peripheral group centres service was weak and inadequate accounting for city development, "suspicious" pattern could not be formed. As regards transport, with the outward expansion of cities, cities have been expanding, centripetal city traffic organization has not changed,