第五、六章句法学(Syntax)课件

Syntax句法学研究的范围句法学：研究组词造句的规则或规律。他很喜欢吃肉。肉他很喜欢吃。*吃肉很他喜欢。形态学(词)句法学(句子)篇章分析(篇章)Whatissyntax?Syntax:{syn},{tax}{syn}means“together”{tax}means“toarrange”Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Fourrepresentativeapproaches1.Thetraditionalapproach2.Thestructuralapproach3.Thegenerativeapproach4.Thefunctionalapproach1.ThetraditionalapproachCategories（范畴）Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.1.1　Lexicalcategories　Englishmajorlexicalcategories实义语类Noun(Nstudent,lecture,JohnVerb(V):like,read,goAdjective(Adj):tall,lovely,redAdverb(adv):loudly,constantly,hardEnglishminorlexicalcategories功能语类(Det):the,a,this,hisAuxiliary(Aux):can,will,do,do,be,havePrepositio(pron):he,she,us,mineConjunction(Conj):and,or,but,while]Interjection(Int):Oh,ah,eh1.2grammaticalcategories:1.2.1number,gender,case,1.2.2tense,mood,aspect1.2.3concord&government1.2.1number,gender,caseNumberismostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun,e.g.abook,somebooks.Genderisalsomostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun.ThecategoryofcaseisprominentinthegrammarofLatin..InEnglish,pronounshavethreecasesofnominative,accusative,andgenitive.Butnounshaveonlytwocases:generalandgenitive.1.2.2tense,mood,aspectTense,moodandAspectarethreeimportantcategoriesoftheverb,andtheywerenotseparatedintraditionalgrammar.1.2.3concord&governmentConcordgovernmentConcordAverbistoagreewiththesubjectinpersonandinnumber.InEnglish,thisruleonlyaffectstheverbaccordingtothenumberofthesubject.(e.g.Theboygoestoschool.Theboysgotoschool.)GovernmentTheideaofgovernmentisthewayinwhichcertainprepositionsandverbsdeterminethecaseofnouns.InEnglish,prepositionsandverbsrequireorrestrictparticularformsoftheparadigmsofpronounsaccordingtothesyntacticrelationbetweenthem.(e.g.Imustlearnfromthem.Theypleasedmetheotherday.)issmiling.1.3Functionalcategoriessubject,predicate,object,complement,adverbial.1.4PhrasalcategoriesandtheirstucturesNP名词短语:atallman,thestudentVP动词短语:readabook,walkintheparkPP介词短语:inthepark,afterdarkAP形容词短语:quiterude,veryanxiousPhrasestuctureruleTheXPruleTheXstandsfortheheadofN,A,VandP.XPspecifiermodifierXacuteXcomplementbirdinthattreeTheXbartheory（X杠理论）Thecoordinaterule2.ThestructuralapproachThestructuralapproachtotheanalysisoflanguagewasstartedbytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureinthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Inasense,allthelinguistictheoriesafterhimarestructuralinthattheyallregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure,notasisolatedbits.2.1SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsSyntagmaticrelationisarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent;theparadigmaticrelation,Saussureoriginallycalledassociative,isarelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsSyntagmaticrelations:horizontalrelationchainrelationarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence(thesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.)ItisalsocalledhorizontalrelationorchainrelationTherearesyntacticandsemanticconditionsthewordsinaSyntagmaticrelationmustmeet.•Paradigmaticrelation:verticalrelation\choicerelationRelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure.ItisalsocalledverticalrelationorchoicerelationExamplesE.g.:Thesmiles.manboyHewentthere.yesterdaylastweekafterhefinishedtheexamAllthesewordsaresaidtobeinaparadigmaticrelation.Theycansubstituteforeachotherwithoutviolatingsyntacticrules,becausetheysharethesamesyntacticfeatures.2.2ImmediateconstituentanalysisImmediateconstituentsareconstituentsimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofaconstruction,whichmaybeasentencelikePoorJohnranawayorawordgrouplikepoorjohn.Theoreticallyspeaking,theconstructionmayalsobeaword.immediateconstituent（直接成分）Constituent(构成成分)ultimateconstituent（最终成分）IC（直接成分）:Canbefurthersegmenteduntilweobtainthesmallestgrammaticalunits.UC（最终成分）:Thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughsegmentation.2.3ICAnalysis(直接成分分析法):ICAnalysisreferstodividethesentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.（把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二分法一直划到最小的语法单位－又称最终成分－词素。）TheadvantageofICAnalysisnotonlyshowslinearrelationship,butalsohierarchicalones.helpstoaccountfortheambiguityofcertainconstructions.Forexample:oldmenandwomenoldmenandwomenAdisadvantageofICAnalysisTherewillbeaproblemastowheretomakethenextcut.Thisiscalleddiscontinuityandsuchconstituentsarecalleddiscontinuousconstituents（非连续成分）.e.g.look…up,bring…in,help…out,lookforwardto,etc.直接成分分析法把话语一直分到词素，忽略了词和习语作为词汇单位的整体作用。如：look…up,bring…in,help…out,lookforwardto,三长两短，七上八下，如果切分到词素，就会忽视习语的整体意义，从而破坏语义的完整性。2.3EndocentricandexocentricconstructionsAnendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.Theexocentricconstruction,oppositetothefirsttype,isdefinednegativelyasaconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.Thereisnonoticeablecenter,orhead,init.3.ThegenerativeapproachBythegenerativeapproach,wemeantheparticulartypeoflinguistictheoryoriginatedwiththeAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky.Chomsky通过有限的规则生成无限的句子。(WilliamHumboldt)递归函数SNP+VPVPV,VPV+NP,VPV+CP,VPV+NP+CPCPS,CPC+SSNP+VPNPArt+NNPArt+Adj+NNPArt+Adj+N+PPNPPro3.1DeepandsurfacestructuresDeepstructuremaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.Surfacestructureisthefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.Thetransformationalcomponent,somethingnewinthetheory,hastransformationalrules,whichchangethedeepstructuresgeneratedbythephrasestructurecomponentintothesurfacestructures.3.2ThesentenceruleNormallyasentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectanditspredicate→InflTenseandagreementTheanalysiscanbecarriedoutinwaysofbracketing(括号法）uprightlines（竖线法）treediagrams(树形法）Treediagrams树形图最为直观，不仅显示出句子的线性结构，而且清楚地表明其阶层结（hierarchicalstructure）。egAambiguitysentence:Theboysawthemanwithatelescope.Forexample:Flyingplanescanbedangerous.这是一个多义结构，可解释为：Theactionofflyingplanescanbedangerous.驾驶飞机是危险的。Planesthatflycanbedangerous.飞着的飞机是危险的。以上句中的表层结构（词语和词序）相同，但语义却不同，既同一个表层结构，有两个深层结构。3.3SyntacticmovementandmovementrulesAux-movement助动词移动DoinsertionWH-movementWH移动NP-movement名词短语移动Aux-movement（助动词移动）Themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentence-initialposition,suchasbe,have,do,will,can,andshould.eg.Johnwillbuyapresent.WillJohnbuyapresent?1.yes-noquestionCPCSNPInflVPDetNwillVthetrainarriveDoinsertionInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflpositioneg.Birdsfly.Birdsdofly.Dobirdsfly?2.doinsertionCPCSNPInflVPNPstVbirdsflyCPCSNPInflVPNVbirdsdoflyCPCSNPInflVPInflNVdobirdseflyWH-movementWH-movementisobligatoryinEnglish,whichchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.eg.Johnwillbuywhat.WhatwillJohnbuy?JohnwillputbookswhereWherewillJohnputbooks?NP-movementNPmovementoccurs發生when,forexample,asentencechangesfromtheactivevoice主動tothepassivevoice被動.eg.JohnkissedMary.MarywaskissedbyJohn.ToChinaforchina,Chinawithchina,dinneronchina.Gofrontdoorbuyfrontdoor,frontdoornofrontdoor,behinddoorwithfrontdoor去中国买瓷器，中国有瓷器，吃饭靠瓷器。到前门买前门，前门没前门，后门有前门。Ithinkthatthatthat(thatthatstudentwroteontheblackboard)waswrong.3.4FivestagesofdevelopmentofChomsky’sTGGrammarChomsky’sTGGrammarhasseenfivestagesofdevelopment.TheClassicalTheoryaimstomakelinguisticsascience.TheStandardTheorydealswithhowsemanticsshouldbestudiedinalinguisticstheory.TheExtendedStandardTheoryfocusesdiscussiononlanguageuniversalsanduniversalgrammar.TheRevisedExtendedStandardTheory(orGB)focusesdiscussionongoverningandbinding.ThelatestistheMinimalistProgram(最简 方案 气瓶 现场处置方案 .pdf气瓶 现场处置方案 .doc见习基地管理方案.doc关于群访事件的化解方案建筑工地扬尘治理专项方案下载 ),afurtherrevisionoftheprevioustheory.4Thefunctionalapproach4.1Functionalsentenceperspective4.2Systemic-functionalgrammar4.1FunctionalsentenceperspectiveApartfromtheanalysisofasentenceintermsofsubjectandpredicatefromtheformalpointofview,theremayalsobeafunctionalanalysisintermsofthemeandrheme.Thefirsttermreferstothatwhichisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceeds,andthesecondwhatthespeakerstatesabout,orinregardto,thestartingpointoftheutterance.4.2Systemic-functionalgrammarThislinguistictheoryhasbeendevelopedbytheBritishbornAustralianlinguistMichaelAlexanderKirkwoodHalliday.Thanks