文艺复兴（一）
一、概 念（Concept）
意大利文艺复兴（Italy Renaissance）
文艺复兴运动是发生在14—17世纪的欧洲，是正在形成中的资产阶级在复兴希腊罗马古典文化的名义下发起的弘扬资产阶级思想和文化的运动
The Renaissance was occurred in 14 - seventeenth Century in Europe, is the emerging bourgeoisie in the revival of Greek classical culture in Rome under the name of initiating promoting bourgeois ideology and cultural movement
为什么称这场运动为“文艺复兴”？ Why is referring to this movement as " the renaissance "
由于新生的资产阶级是借助古代希腊、罗马的文化来反对封建神学的，所以历史上称这场新兴的文化运动为“文艺复兴”。
The new bourgeoisie is have the aid of ancient Greece, the culture of Rome to oppose the feudal theology, so the history that the new cultural movement of the Renaissance " ".
二、实 质（Solid matter）
是一场以古典文化复活为外衣的新文化运动，是当时欧洲社会经济与政治结构变革条件下的产物，是中世纪晚期欧洲世俗文化发展的必然结果，同时，它又反过来进一步加速欧洲社会的进步。To be a classical culture the resurrection as the coat of the new culture movement, was the European social economy and political structure reform under the conditions of the product, is a late medieval secular European culture and the inevitable result of the development, at the same time, it in turn further acceleration of European society.
实质：资产阶级文化的兴起
性质：资产阶级性质Properties: bourgeois
文艺复兴运动为什么首先开始于意大利？The Renaissance began in Italy why?
(1) 资本主义萌芽最早出现在意大利，这是意大利成为文艺复兴发源地的前提条件。
(2) 意大利丰厚的古典文化遗产和众多人才为文艺复兴运动的兴起提供了重要条件。
(3) 中国造纸术和印刷术在西欧的广泛使用推动了文艺复兴运动的兴起和发展。
( 1) capitalism first appeared in Italy, it is Italy became the birthplace of the premise condition of renaissance.
( 2) Italy's rich cultural heritage and many talents for the classical Renaissance movement provides important condition.
( 3) Chinese paper and printing in Western Europe are widely used to promote the Renaissance movement and the rise of development.
三、指 导 思 想（Guiding thought）
人文主义： Humanism
指的是欧洲文艺复兴运动时期出现的一种资产阶级的世界观，是文艺复兴的指导思想
Refers to the European Renaissance period appears a bourgeois world outlook, is the guiding ideology of the Renaissance
人文主义思想的内容——Humanism thought content
1、重视人的价值，崇尚人性，要求把人从宗教的束缚中解放出来。
2、人文主义者大力宣扬人的自由意志和个性自由的发展。
3、要求现实生活和尘世的享乐
In 1, emphasis on human values, respect for human nature, requires that the people from religious bondage.
2, humanists preach human freedom and freedom of personality development.
3, for real life and worldly hedonism
新兴资产阶级主张以人为中心而不是以神为中心；他们颂扬人的价值、人的尊严、人的力量和人的伟大，认为人可以创造一切；他们赞美人生和自然，崇尚科学和理性。
The emerging bourgeoisie advocated people-centered rather than to God as the center; they celebrate human value, dignity, strength and greatness, to think that a man can create everything; they praise life and natural, advocating science and reason.
积极作用Positive role 一是大大动摇了教会封建神学，起到了打击封建
制度
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的作用；
二是鼓励人们追求财富及现实的幸福，有利于资本原始积累
A church is greatly shaken the feudal theology, played against the feudal system;
Two is to encourage people to pursue the wealth and happiness reality, in favor of the primitive accumulation of capital
消极影响 过分推崇个人意志，造成个人私欲的膨胀等；Negative effects of too much personal will, causing personal desires expansion;
四、代
表
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人 物On behalf of.
第一阶段：14世纪初—15世纪中叶，
（早期阶段）
主要成就：文学艺术的萌发，出现“文学三杰”
但丁—《神曲》《神曲》分“地狱”、“炼狱”、“天堂”三部。
但丁是中世纪的最后一位诗人，同时又是新时代的最初一位诗人。——恩格斯
彼特拉克—《歌集》“人文主义之父”
薄伽丘—《十日谈》
乔托——《哀悼基督》近代绘画的奠基者 欧洲绘画之父
第二阶段：15世纪中叶——16世纪末叶，（全盛时期）
主要成就：造型艺术“美术三杰”
达·芬奇—《蒙娜丽莎》《最后的晚餐》达·芬奇多才多艺，不但是个艺术家，是个科学家。
米开朗基罗—《最后的审判》《大卫》（雕像充分体现了一种顽强、坚定和正义的精神气质。他双眉紧锁，目光炯炯，全神贯注，显示出压倒一切敌人的威武姿态。是雕塑史上最杰出的作品之一。 ）
米开朗基罗·博那罗蒂(1475-1564)是一位多才多艺的博学的艺术大师。他集雕刻家、画家、建筑家、诗人于一身。在长达70余年的创作生涯中，历经坎坷，创造了许多天才作品，为人类文明增添了不朽的篇章
拉斐尔—《西斯廷圣母》（画中圣母没有丝毫的神秘感，完全是一位充满了欢乐、幸福、美丽的人间母亲。）被称为 “画圣” 拉斐尔少年時的自画像。拉斐尔長得既清秀又有气质，“拉斐尔”本來也就是天堂里那位大天使的名字。拉斐尔的爸妈給他取这个名字，也是希望他们的儿子长大了像天使一般。他们的愿望真的达成了
此外，政治思想家、历史学家马基雅维利
文艺复兴（二）
二，西欧诸国的文艺复兴
人物
国籍
主要思想
代表作
莎士比亚
英国
放映社会现实体现人文主义思想
哈姆雷特
拉伯雷
法国
提倡人的个性解放
巨人传
伊拉斯谟
德意志
接楼教皇、教士和贵族的愚昧和贪婪
愚人颂
塞万提斯
西班牙
揭示教会的专横和社会的黑暗
堂吉诃德
三，文艺复兴时期的科学（Renaissance Science）
1，历史条件Historical conditions
1）思想：文艺复兴促进了人们思想的解放，使得求真求实的科学风气悄然萌芽；
Thought: the Renaissance promoted people to the liberation of the thought, make the realistic scientific atmosphere sadly budding;
2）生产力：生产经验的积累，技术能力的提高，为科学研究创造了条件；
Productivity: the accumulation of production experience, technical ability, scientific research created a condition;
3）一大批科学家在极端困难、专制黑暗的历史条件下，大无畏追求真理的科学精神
A large number of scientists in extreme difficulty, autocratic dark history condition, fearless pursuit of truth and the spirit of Science
2，内容
1）天文学哥白尼（发展哥白尼学说，认为太阳也不是中心，宇宙是无限的。） 开普勒（德国天文学家） 伽利略
2）数学、物理
3）哲学思想 布鲁诺 培根
四大悲剧：
《奥赛罗》 《李尔王》《麦克白》 《哈姆雷特》《Osero》, "《 "King Lear》《Macbeth》《 Hamlett.》
喜剧代表作： 《仲夏夜之梦》《威尼斯商人》
文艺复兴会给社会带来什么影响？
1、冲破了封建神学，解放了人们的思想。
2、产生了许多文化巨人和不朽名著，成为人类文化宝库中的瑰丽珍宝。
3、文艺复兴运动推动了自然科学的发展。
4、人文主义思想为近代资产阶级革命运动奠定了理论基础。
The Renaissance would bring what influence?
1, broke the feudal theology, liberation of the thought of people.
2, produced a lot of cultural giants and the immortal masterpiece, become the human cultural heritage magnificent treasure.
3, the Renaissance movement promotes the development of natural science.
4, humanistic ideas for modern bourgeois revolution laid the theoretical foundation.
总而言之，文艺复兴可被视为学者们研究和改善俗世的一次尝试，他们通过复兴古典时代思想和创新思考方式来推动变革。罗德尼·斯塔克（Rodney Stark）等学者[16]认为中世纪盛期（英语：High Middle Ages）发生在意大利城邦的改革的意义并不亚于文艺复兴运动，前者产生了回应型政府、基督教和资本主义萌芽的结合体。这种
分析
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认为，鉴于欧洲大国（法国和西班牙）受君主专制统治，而其他国家则受教会的直接控制；因而只有意大利的独立城市共和国才能从僧院等级承袭资本主义的原则，进而引发了一场规模空前的商业革命，并为随后发生的文艺复兴运动打下了经济基础。
In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark,[18] play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city states in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution which preceded and financed the Renaissance.
启蒙运动时期的文化（Enlightenment of culture）
学习
提示
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:（Learning Tip）
1、了解启蒙运动产生的时代背景
2、了解启蒙运动的性质和影响
3、掌握启蒙运动时期思想家的主要思想和作品
4、掌握启蒙运动的思想内容及其特点
1, understanding of the Enlightenment era background
2, understanding the nature and effect of the enlightenment
In 3, during the period of the Enlightenment thinkers to master the main ideas and works
In 4, master of enlightenment thought and its characteristics
.英国早期的启蒙思想¡洛克（The early English Enlightenment¡-¡- Rock）
①背景
1688年的光荣革命，使英国最终完成了革命，洛克于1689年发表《政府论》，为新秩序提供理论论证。
（Background
The glorious revolution of 1688, the British finally completed the revolution, Rock published in 1689, " government ", for a new order in providing the theory.）
启蒙运动时期的文化
一、启蒙运动产生的时代背景（The Enlightenment of era background）
1、资产阶级政治革命的兴起（Bourgeois political revolution）
17、18世纪是资本主义生产关系迅速发展和资产阶级革命的时代，这个时期先后发生了四次资产阶级革命。伴随着资产阶级革命，资产阶级的政治制度在欧洲、北美普遍建立。资产阶级自由、平等、博爱的精神在传播。（17, eighteenth Century is the capitalist relations of production develops quickly andEra of the bourgeois revolution, the period has occurred four times.Bourgeois revolution. With the bourgeois revolution, the bourgeois politicsGovernance system in Europe, North America generally set. Bourgeois liberalization, flatAnd so, the spirit of fraternity in communication.）
2、资产阶级要求改革传统的经济政策（Bourgeois requirement to reform traditional economic policy）
17、18世纪的欧洲正处于商业革命的盛期，重商主义更加成熟。但是，随着工场工业的繁荣，发展了的工场手工业要求经济上的自由竞争，国家应当允许企业的自由活动和贸易的自由。于是，欧洲出现了一种新理论——重农学派，主张摆脱重商主义，鼓吹自由、放任主义。这种理论的代表人物是法国的魁奈（1694——1774)、杜尔哥（1727——1781），还有英国的亚当·斯密（1723——1790）等。（In eighteenth Century 17, Europe is in the commercial revolution of the flourishing period, the mercantile Doctrine of more mature. However, with the plant industry prosperity, development The workshop handicraft industry for economic freedom competition, countries should Allow the free enterprise activities and free trade. So, Europe Now a new theory -- the physiocracy, he wanted to get rid of its master Justice, freedom, advocating laissez-faire. This theory is the representative The French Quesnay ( 1694 -- 1774), Turgot ( 1727 --1781), and Britain 's Adam Smith ( 1723 -- 1790)And so on.）
3、自然科学的发展成果（The development of natural science achievements）
在自然科学上，启蒙运动吸收了自然科学发展的成果。认为人们也能够凭理性的力量发现有关自然、人类和社会的法则，谋取世俗的幸福。这一时期的自然科学发展迅速。哥白尼、布鲁诺、伽利略、开普勒、牛顿发现的真理，已被知识界所接受。（In the natural sciences, the enlightenment absorbed Natural Science School achievements. Think people can also by rational force Volume found on natural, human and social law, seek Worldly happiness. During this perod, the development of natural science. Speed. Copernicus, Bruno, Galileo, Kepler, Niu Meal to discover the truth, has been accepted by the intellectual circles.）
4、资产阶级特色的唯物主义哲学体系的形成（Bourgeois characteristics of materialism philosophy system Formation）
资产阶级在政治上也渴望自由平等。他们的力量越来越大，从而与君主专制、贵族特权的矛盾逐渐激化。资产阶级要求民主和法制的思想更加成熟，并广泛传播开来。在哲学思想上，启蒙思想家在总结自然科学成就的基础上，建立了资产阶级特色的唯物主义哲学体系。他们在同封建专制与神学斗争中，继承和发展了培根、笛卡尔等人的先进哲学思想。法国启蒙思想家的成就最大。Asset class in the political desire of freedom and equality. They forceMore and more, and the monarchy, the privileges of the nobility of the contradiction by Gradually sharpening. The capitalist class democratic and legal ideology more into Cooked, and spread. On philosophical thought, enlightenment thinkers In summing up the achievements of natural science foundation, established bourgeois.Color of materialism philosophy system. They are in the same feudal autocracy and Theology In the fight, the inheritance and development of Bacon, Descartes and others advanced philosophy School of thought. The French Enlightenment thinker's greatest achievements.
培根（1214-1292）：英国哲学家、科学家。曾在牛津大学任教，获得过神学博士学位。培根虽是僧侣，但他却离经叛道，揭竿而起，用他的唯物主义哲学思想反对经院哲学，他强调科学试验，认为观察和实验才是获得真知的唯一方法。由于冒犯了教会，他在修道院监狱中被囚禁15年。Bacon ( 1214-1292 ): British philosopher, scientist. Has taught at the University of Oxford, received a doctorate in theology. Although Bacon is the monk, but he can discard the classics and rebel against orthodoxy, rise up in arms, with his materialism philosophy against the scholastic philosophy, he emphasizes that scientific experiment, observation and experiment is the only way to obtain knowledge. For offending the church in the monastery, he was held in captivity for 15 years in prison.
笛卡尔（1596～1650）： 17世纪法国哲学家，科学家。西方近代哲学的奠基人之一，解析几何的创始人。旧译笛卡儿。（Descartes ( 1596 ~ 1650 ): seventeenth Century French philosopher, scientist. One of the founders of modern western philosophy, analytic geometry author. The old translation of descartes.）
二、启蒙运动的思想内容及其特点（The Enlightenment of ideological content and characteristics）
1、启蒙运动的思想内容（The Enlightenment of ideological content）
第一、崇尚理性。启蒙思想把抽象的人作为一切事物的中心，用人的理性代替神的意志，以人的理性来检验封建统治阶级制定的种种制度和政策，最终证明其具有欺骗性。
第二、肯定客观世界的规律性。启蒙思想家认为事物之间存在的必然联系是最广泛意义上的法规，自然界中存在的基本原则和正义是政治、法律效仿的典范。他们相信客观世界的秩序性，认为从创世之日起，它就被安排的井井有序。
第三、提倡科学、重视知识，反对愚昧。启蒙思想家在反对封建专制主义的同
时也积极倡导和宣传自然科学。
第四、向往自由平等的社会。启蒙思想家认为人应当是自由的，自由有利于社
会。自由应包括言论、出版、信仰等自由。激进的启蒙思想家提出了“天赋人权”，“主权在民”“三权分立”等先进思想。
（First, advocating rational. Enlightenment to abstract as The center of everything, with human reason instead of God's will, to people The reason to test the feudal ruling class to develop all sorts of system and policy Policy, ultimately prove its deceptive.
Second, that the laws of the objective world. The thinkers of the enlightenment. The things the inevitable relations between the sense of law is one of the most widely Gauge, exist in nature, basic principles and justice is political, legal Emulate the model. They believe that the objective world order, view from Creation date, it has been arranged well orderly.
Third, advocate science, the importance of knowledge, against the foolish Be ignorant of. Enlightenment thinkers in opposition to feudal autocracy of the same Also actively promote and publicize the natural science.
Fourth, yearning for freedom and equality of the society. Qi Mengsi Homesickness think people should be free, free to agency Sure. Freedom of speech and of the press, religion should be included, such as self By. Radical Enlightenment thinkers put forward " talent person Right ", " sovereignty belongs to the people ", " separation of the three powers " and other advanced thinking Think of.）
启蒙运动具有广泛的国际性，它席卷了欧洲和北美的所有国家，特别是英国、法国、意大利、俄国和美国在启蒙运动中涌现了许许多多的杰出的思想家。他们从理性的原则出发，向封建专制制度和反动教会发起了猛烈的进攻，内容涉及哲学、伦理学、经济学、政治学、史学、美学教育学等各个领域，他们在反封建制度的同时也提出了一系列崭新的思想理论。这些先进理论极大地鼓舞了人民群众反封建的斗志，为资产阶级革命作了思想上、舆论上的准备。（The Enlightenment has extensive international, it swept across Europe Delta and north of all countries, especially Britain, France, Italy Italian, Russian and the United States during the enlightenment in the many Many great thinkers. They from the rational principle, To feudal autocracy and the church launched a fierce into Attack, covered philosophy, ethics, economics, politicsScience, history, aesthetics, education and other fields, they are Anti feudal system at the same time also put forward a series of new ideas Theory. These advanced theories greatly inspired the people's anti The feudal spirit, for the bourgeois revolution made the thought, geography On the preparation of.）
2、启蒙思想的特点（Enlightenment thought characteristic）
第一，反对宗教蒙昧主义，宣扬理性与科学 启蒙思想家认为，社会不进步的原因是宗教势
力，特别是天主教对人民精神的长期统治。他们宣称，人的理性是衡量一切、判断一切的尺度不合乎理性的东西就没有存在的权利。因此，神学、基督教等应该被统统打倒。
第二，反对封建专制制度，宣扬民主与法制启蒙思想家认为，封建专制制度扼杀自由思
想，造成社会上的不平等和文化、经济上的落后。因此，他们宣扬“天赋人权”，主张人民参与政治，法律面前人人平等。
First, as opposed to religious obscurantism, advocate science and reason Thinkers of enlightenment thought, social progress is the result of religious potential Force, especially to people's spirit in the long reign of the catholic. They declared Said, the reason is the measure of all, to judge all scales, different On the rational thing there is no existence rights. Therefore, theology, radical Christian should be completely overthrow.
In second, against the feudal autocratic system, promoting democracy and legal system
Thinkers of enlightenment thought, the feudal autocratic system stifles free thinking Want, causing inequality in society and culture, economic backwardness.Therefore, they advocate " natural rights", advocated the people's participation in politics, Laws do not discriminate against anyone.
三、启蒙运动时期的思想家（During the period of the Enlightenment thinkers）
1、法国启蒙运动的代表人物（The French representative figures of the enlightenment）
（1）、伏尔泰：伏尔泰（1694——1778）是法国启蒙运动的领袖，大资产阶级温和派的代表，又是一位作家、政治家、历史学家和哲学家。他的代表作有《论英国
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简》（现译《哲学通讯》）、《哲学辞典》、《形而上学论》、《论各国的立国精神与礼俗》、《牛顿哲学原理》、《路易十四时代》、《查理十二史》、《彼德大帝统治下的俄罗斯》、《中国孤儿》等。伏尔泰的社会思想核心是平等，他提出了“天赋人权”的口号。这是对当时等级制度和出身特权的公开挑战他的政治思想是自由的，希望建立像英国一样的君主立宪法制。他一方面反对专制制度，一方面主张保留国王，把建立君主立宪作为政治理想。
Voltaire: Voltaire ( 1694 -- 1778) is French Enlightenment movement leader, the big bourgeois moderates the representative, It is a writer, politician, historian and philosopher. His The representative of the British " letters " ( " communication " is philosophy ),Dictionary of philosophy. " ", " ", " the metaphysics of the nation Spirit and custom ", " Newton ", " Louis Xiv the philosophy principle Generation ", " Charlie twelve ", " history of Russia under Peter the great Sri Lanka ", " Chinese orphan " etc.. Voltaire thought is the core of social Equal, he put forward the slogan of " natural rights". This is the time. System privileges and was open to challenge. His political ideas are free, hope to build like Britain 's constitutional monarchy constitutional monarchy as the political ideal.
（2）、孟德斯鸠：孟德斯鸠（1689——1755）是一位百科全书式的学者。他的主要著作有《波斯人信札》、《论法的精神》及《保卫法的精神》等。其中《论法的精神》1784年出版，两年内发行22版，有许多外国译本。1913年，严复译为汉文出版，译名《法意》。孟德斯鸠提出政体可分为三种：共和政体、君主政体和专制政体。他认为小国之制易于共和政体，中国之制易于君主政体，而大国之制易于专制政体。小国人少，地狭、单纯，易被吞并，宜用共和；疆域大、人口多、复杂，要用武力镇压，宜用专制政体。他提出了三权分立的学说，把国家权力分为立法权、行政权和司法权。这三种权力必须分开，使他们互相平衡，互相牵制，保护相对的独立性。三权分立的目的就是要限制国王的无限权力。表达了新兴资产阶级要求参加政权的愿望。三权分立学说对美国宪法、法国的《人权宣言》及后世资产阶级各国的政治法律制度产生了深远影响。
Montesquieu: Montesquieu ( 1689 -- 1755)Is an encyclopedic scholar. His major works are " the Persian People 's letters ", " the spirit of the law " and " defend the spirit of law " And so on. " The spirit of the law, " which was published in 1784, two years to issue The 22 edition, there are many foreign translations. In 1913, Yan Fu translated into Chinese by Edition, translation " meaning ". Montesquieu put forward the government can be divided into three Method: a republic, monarchy and despotism. He thinks small The system is easy to Republican China, the system is easy to the monarchy, and big.he system is easy to autocracy. The small small, narrow, simple, easy to Be annexed, to use the Republic; territory, population much, complex, must use The force, to use the monarchy. He put forward the theory of separation of the three powers Say, the state power is divided into legislative power, administrative power and judicial power. This Three kinds of power must be separated, so they balance each other, mutual and diversionary, Protection of relative independence. Separation of the three powers of the aim is to limit the unlimited power. Expression of the emerging bourgeoisie requests to participate in the regime's desire. Theory of separation of the three powers of the constitution of the United States, France's " Declaration of human rights " and later bourgeois countries political and legal system produced far-reaching effect.
（3）、卢梭：卢梭（1712——1778）是激进的民主主义者哲学家、教育家、文学家和启蒙思想家。他的主要著作有《论科学和艺术》、《论人类不平等的起源和基础》、《爱弥儿》、《社会契约论》、《忏悔录》等。在社会政治上，他提出两个观点：第一、人类不平等的根源是私有制。卢梭认为，在自然状态中，没有私有制，也没有国家权力。由于生产技术和文化的发展，出现了私有制。私有制的产生，使人类进入文明社会，也使人类失去天赋的自由和平等；伴随国家的出现产生了政治上的不平等，这种不平等和贫富对立，就发展成为专制制度，当暴君出现时，不平等发展达到顶点。因此，他提出以革命推翻封建暴力的结论。 第二、主权在民。这是他在《社会契约论》中提出的思想。《社会契约论》完整地阐述了资产阶级民主共和国的政治原则。天赋人权主张人们享有生存、自由、平等、获得财产和反抗压迫等权利。他认为人类原来生活在自然状态中，由于生存受到威胁，才通过社会契约组国家。人与国家的关系是国家保护人的自由的契约关系。如果政府篡夺了人民的主权，他便破坏了社会契约，人民有权利起来推翻它。
Rousseau ( 1712 -- 1778) was a radical democrat The main nationalist philosopher, educator, writer and thinker. He Major works include the " science and art ", " of human inequality. The origin and basic ", " child ", " social contract theory ", " repentance Regret. " Etc.. In social politics, he made two points: First, the origin of human inequality is private ownership. Rousseau thinks, In the state of nature, no private ownership, also without state power. Because Production technology and the development of culture, emergence of private ownership. Private ownership of property Students, make the mankind entered the civilized society, also make human lose free gift Peace; with the country's appearance has had political inequalities, this Kind of inequality between the rich and the poor opposition, on the development of autocracy, when the tyrant Arise, unequal development climax. Therefore, he proposed to the revolution Overthrow the feudal violence. In second, the sovereignty of the people. This is he in the " social contract theory ". Forward thinking. " The social contract " fully elaborated asset order Democratic Republic political principles. Human rights advocates people enjoy Survival, freedom, equality, and resistance to oppression and other rights of property. He argued that human life in a state of nature, because survival is Threat, only through the social contract is composed of state. The relationship between the state and the people Is that the country protects human freedom of contract relationship. If the government usurped the The sovereignty of the people, he destroyed the social contract, people have the right to play To override it.
（4）、狄德罗：狄德罗（1713——1784）是杰出的哲学家、作家和启蒙思想家。1745年，巴黎书商勒·勃勒东聘请他主编一部《百科全书，或科学、艺术或工艺详解辞典》（简称《百科全书》）。1751——1780年间，狄德罗集中了140多位哲学家、思想家、文学家、自然科学家、医生和工艺师等，几乎团结了当时法国全部先进知识分子，包括伏尔泰、孟德斯鸠、卢梭、霍尔巴赫等，形成了一个很有影响的政治派别。《百科全书》共计32卷，《百科全书》的内容无所不包。它宣传启蒙思想家的新思想和自然科学知识，成为一部集法国先进思想之大成的反封建、反教会的科学巨著。狄德罗所领导的百科全书派，在18世纪法国启蒙运动中起着领导作用，为法国资产阶级革命制造舆论起了重大作用。
Diderot ( 1713 -- 1784) is Jay A philosopher, writer and thinker. On 1745, the Paris book
Shang Le Boledong hired him chief editor " Encyclopedia, or science, Dictionary of art or craft. " (hereinafter referred to as the " Encyclopedia " ). 1751 -- 1780 years, Diderot concentrated more than 140 Philosophy Home, thinkers, writers, scientists, doctors and technicians
And so, almost unity of France at that time all the advanced intellectuals, including VAnd, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Rohrbacher, formed a very Influential political factions. A total of 32 volumes of " Encyclopedia ", " 100 The content, " everything is contained therein. It is the new thinking of propaganda and Enlightenment thinkers Thought and knowledge of natural science, has become a set of advanced thought in France Anti feudal, scientific work against the church. Led by Diderot. The school, in eighteenth Century the French Enlightenment movement played a leading role in, For the French bourgeois revolution played a significant role in making public opinion.
2、德国启蒙思想家的代表人物（German Enlightenment thinker's representative）
莱布尼茨（1646——1716）是德国自然科学家、哲学家、唯理论者、数理逻辑的创始人。他的主要著作有《形而上学谈话》、《人类理智新论》、《神正论》、《单子论》等。1677年，他几乎和牛顿同时创立了微积分；在逻辑学上，他最先提出充足理由律，并用数学方法研究有关的逻辑问题；在哲学上，他建立客观唯心主义体系的单子论；在认识论上，他认为认识不是来自外界事物，而是先验的，是心灵自身所固有的潜在观念的显现。他把真理分为必然真理和偶然真理。其唯心主义体系中，含有一些辩证法的因素；在政治上，他有调和倾向，反对君主专制制度，但鼓吹“开明专制”。莱布尼茨十分热爱科学文化，是一位科学研究的组织者和活动家。
Leibniz ( 1646 -- 1716) was a German Natural Science Home, philosopher, rationalist, the founder of mathematical logic. His principal To work with " metaphysics " conversation ", on the " human reason, " Theodicies ", " Monadology " etc.. In 1677, he almost and cattle Dayton also established the calculus; in the logic, he was the first to provide sufficient Law of causality, and using mathematics method to study the related problems in the philosophy of logic; , he set up the objective idealism system list theory; in Epistemology He thinks the understanding, not from external things, but a priori, is Soul inherent potential concept revealed. He put the truth will be divided into However the truth and contingent truth. Its idealism system, with some arguing Method of factor; in politics, he has to reconcile the tendency, specifically against the monarchy System, but that "the enlightened despotism ". Leibniz loves the science Culture, is a scientific research organizer and activist.
3、美国启蒙思想家的代表人物（The United States of America enlightenment thinker's representative）
（1）托马斯·潘恩（1737——1809）是美国资产阶级民主主义者、政论家和启蒙思想家。他的主要著作有《常识》、《人权论》、《理性进代》和《论政府的基本原则》等其中《常识》影响最大。在这篇政论中，潘恩鼓励美国人民开展武装斗争，与英国彻底决裂而独立。《常识》被美国人民作为革命的《圣经》，直接影响着北美《独立宣言》的产生。
Toma
Sri Lanka, Paine ( 1737 -- 1809) is the United States of America Bourgeois democracy, political commentator He Qi Mongolian thinker. His major works are " often Knowledge ", " human rights ", " into the " rational And " on the government's basic principles ". In which" Common sense " the greatest influence. In this article, the political In America, Paine encourages people to carry out armed struggle Contend for, and a complete break and independent uk. " Often Knowledge " by the American people as the " sacred revolution The ", directly affecting the North American " Declaration of independence The word ".
（2托马斯·杰佛逊（1743——1826）是美国资产阶级民主传统的奠基人。1800年，他当先为美国总统。他的主要著作有《英属美洲权利概述》、《弗吉尼亚札记》等，并参与起草了《独立宣言》。杰佛逊在政治上主张共和制，维护国家主权和民族独立。《独立宣言》中宣称：“人人生而平等，其中包括生命权，自由权和追求幸福等权利。”在经济上，他反对英国货大量输入，维护民族经济，保证自由经济在美国自由发展。这些思想促进了本国资本主义发展和社会进步。
Thomas Jefferson ( 1743 -- 1826) is the United States of America bourgeois Democratic tradition. In 1800, he was the United States for a total Interconnected system. His major works are " British American rights Overview ", " " Virginia " and so on, and participated in the drafting of the " Declaration of independence ". Jie Foxun politically republican system, safeguard national sovereignty and national independence Li. " Declaration of independence " declared: " all men are created equal, wherein the package Including the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. " In the economy, He opposed British goods large input, maintain national economy, the guarantee of free In the United States of America free development of economy. These ideas promoted their own capital advocate Justice and social development.
3）本杰明·富兰克林 （1706——1790）是美国独立时期著名政治家、科学家和启蒙思想家。他是独立宣言的起草人之一。1730年，他创办《宾西法尼亚周报》财刊，传播艺术与科学达18年之久。在政治上，主张民主，废除奴隶制度；在科学方法上，他发明避雷针、玻璃键琴等；在哲学上，他拥护自然神论，承认自然界的存在及其规律的客观性。
Benjamin Franklin ( 1706 --1790) is the United States independent during the famous political Home, scientists and thinkers of the enlightenment. He is the only One of the drafters of the legislation declaration. In 1730, he Founder of Pennsylvania weekly " magazine " fortune, biography On art and science for 18 years. In politics advocate democracy, the abolition of slavery; in The scientific method, he invented the lightning rod, glass Harpsichord; in philosophy, he embraced the idea of nature Theism, admit the existence of nature and its rule
Objectivity.
5、启蒙运动的性质和影响 （The Enlightenment on the nature and influence of）
启蒙运动是继文艺复兴后又一次思想解放运动、新文化运动。 启蒙思想家的活动使人们从封建思想的桎梏中解放出来，对动员与组织群众，反对封建的革命运动起了重要作用；它对欧美资产阶级政治制度与法制有深远影响。启蒙运动适应了整个资本主义发展的需要，很快跨越了欧洲的疆域，传遍了世界各地；启蒙思想家提出的“自由、平等、博爱”既有进步性，也有虚伪性。启蒙思想家反对封建主义，无疑是进步的，对法国革命在思想上和理论上起了促进作用。但利己主义、拜金主义成为资产阶级的道德观，人与人之间谈不上平等、博爱，世界上只有具体的自由、平等，没有抽象的自由、平等。
The enlightenment is afterwards after Renaissance again ideological emancipation movement,The new culture movement.Enlightenment thinkers activity that people from feudal shackles in solution Put out, on the mobilization and organization of the masses, the revolutionary movement against feudalism An important role; it on Western bourgeois political system and legal system have deep Far effect. The enlightenment to the whole of the needs of the development of capitalism, Soon across European borders, spread all over the world; enlightenment Home in the "freedom, equality, fraternity " to have progress already, also have the hypocrisy Generality. Enlightenment thinkers oppose feudalism, is undoubtedly the progress, the law The revolution in thought and theory played a role in promoting. But the egoist Righteousness, mammonism become bourgeois morality, between the person and the person talking On equality, fraternity, the world's only specific free, equal, no
Abstract liberty, equality.
四、启蒙运动时期的文学、史学和艺术（During the period of the Enlightenment literature, history and art）
1、启蒙运动时期的文学（In the age of Enlightenment Literature）
（1）启蒙文学的特点（Enlightenment literary characteristics） 第一、启蒙文学具有鲜明的政治性与民主性。启蒙时期的文学家抨击当时社会的政治、思想，抨击封建专制和宗教势力，热情宣扬科学思想，鼓吹自由、平等、博爱的资产阶级革命民主精神。
第二、启蒙文学把资产阶级和平民作为他们描写的对象，歌颂他们的英雄行为和情操，而王公贵族成为被嘲笑、被批评的人物。
第三、反映时代精神，采用有利于现实斗争的新体裁。这一时期的哲理小说、哲理戏剧和哲理随笔、抒情小说、启蒙戏剧都具有独立性。
First, the Enlightenment literature has a distinct political and democratic nature.Enlightenment literary criticism at the time, political and social thought,Attack the feudal autocracy and religious forces, enthusiastic advocate of scientific thought, advocate Liberty, equality, fraternity of the bourgeois revolution in the spirit of democracy.In second, the bourgeois Enlightenment Literature and civilians as they describe Object, sing the praises of their heroism and sentiment, and the nobility is Be laughed at, was criticized for characters.In third, reflects the spirit of the times, is conducive to the realistic struggle NEW The genre. This period of philosophical novels, plays and philosophical essays on philosophy, Lyric novels, drama has the independence of enlightenment.
2、启蒙运动时期的史学（In the age of enlightenment historiography）
启蒙时期的史学重视经济与文化在历史上的作用，用理性主义对待历史，重视因果关系，认识到历史是不断发展的过程。（During the period of enlightenment historiography of economy and culture in the history of the role, with the rationalist approach to history, attention to causality, recognizing that the history is a continuously developing process.）
孟德斯鸠在《论罗马盛衰的原因》和《论法的精神》中提出了“地理环境决定论”。他认为气候、地理、土壤等条件决定政治体制、法律的性质和人们的性格。（Montesquieu in the " on " and " the reason of Rome and the spirit of the laws " in put forward " geographic environmental determinism ". He thinks the climate, geography, soil conditions determine the political system, the laws of nature and the character of the people.）
伏尔泰的《路易十四时代》是研究法国文化史的要籍。德国施洛塞尔（1735——1809）的《俄国史》和《世界通史》等，确定了世界史应当包括各个历史时期、各个国家和地区一切已知的重大事件。（Voltaire " Louis Xiv " is the study of the era of French cultural history of books. German Shlomi Searl ( 1735 -- 1809). " The history of Russia " and " world history " and so on, determined the world history should be included in each historical period, the various countries and regions all known major events.）
米凯尔·伊·施米特写的《德意志史》，标榜客观主义。英国大卫·休谟（1711——1776）写的《从恺撒入侵到1688年革命的英国史》，内容丰富，影响很大。英国的爱德华·吉（1737——1794）是18世纪欧洲最著名的历史学家。他的代表作是《罗马帝国衰亡史》。吉本继承并发展了古代历史学家的优良传统，善于利用前人的研究成果，综合历史事实。他的著作叙事生动，文情并茂，雅俗共赏，是资产阶级史学的高峰。（Mikael Yi Schmitt wrote " history ", advertised objectivism. David Hume ( 1711 -- 1776) wrote " from Caesar's invasion into the 1688 revolution history of England ", rich in content, has a great effect on the. Britain's Edward GEE ( 1737 -- eighteenth Century 1794 ) is Europe's most famous historian. His representative work is the " fall of Rome ". Gibbon inherited and developed the good tradition of ancient historians, make good use of the research achievements of predecessors, combined the facts of history. His book narrative vivid, Wen Qing Mao, suit and the common people, is a bourgeois history peak.）
19世纪后期，欧洲史学流派相继出现，最有影响的是法国的浪漫学路。 启蒙运动的文化是近代文化，其发展速度和水平，都远远超过了古代、中世纪。“它第一次证明了，人的活动能够取得什么样的成就。它创造了完全不同与埃及金字塔、罗马水道和哥特式教堂的奇迹。”在近代，由于生产力的迅速提高，资本主义商品经济的发展，于是“一切民族甚至最野蛮的民族”都卷入近代文明的旋涡，“民族的片面性和局限性日益成为不可能。”派和政治学派、法国和英国的实证主义历史学派、制度史学派、英国的牛津学派和剑桥学派、德国的兰克学派、普鲁士学派和经济史学派。19世纪中叶，马克思主义史学诞生而使史学走了科学的道路。In late nineteenth Century, European history appear in succession, the most influential was the French romantic road. The Enlightenment of culture is the modern culture, its development speed and level, far more than the ancient, medieval. " It is the first evidence of human activity, what can be achieved. It created a completely different from Egyptian pyramids, Rome waterway and Gothic church. " In modern times, as productivity rise quickly, capitalist goods economy development, so " all nations and even the most barbarous people " are involved in a modern civilized vortex, " national one-sidedness and limitation increasingly become impossible. " Pie and politics school, French and British positivism history school, institutional history, England
The Oxford school and Cambridge school, the German Rankean school, the school and the economic history. The middle of the nineteenth Century, the birth of Marx history to go the road of science history
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