Rock n'roll

Rockn'rollRock-and-Rolln.firstsoused(1951)byAlanFreed,Clevelanddiscjockey,takenfromthesong"MyBabyRocksMewithaSteadyRoll".Theuseofrock,roll,rockandroll,etc.,withreferencetosexualintercourse,istraditionalinblues,aformofpopularmusicthatevolvedinthe1950'sfromrhythmandblues,characterizedbytheuseofelectricguitars,astrongrhythmwithanaccentontheoffbeat,andyouth-orientedlyrics.TheGoldenDecade-1955to1964Thiswebpageattemptstoexploretherootsofrockinsuchawayastoilluminatethenaturalprogressionofmusicalstyles.ToooftenthestudyofrockbeginswithBillHaleyandHisCometsandincludesscantinformationaboutthebluesandrhythmrecordsthathe,andothers,usedasamodel.Amusicalgenredoesnotsimplyappear,itgraduallyevolvestoapointintimewhensomeevent-performance,publication,or recordingallowslistenerstoperceiveitsuniquequalitiesandapplyalabel.WyonnieHarris'1947recordingof"GoodRockingTonight"wasoneofmany"rhythmrecords"madeduringthelate1940s,howeverwhenitwasrecordedbyElvisPresleyin1954itseemedlikeanewanddifferentapproach.Whatmadeitseemnewanddifferentwasitscontext.Withoutexploringthehistoryofblackpopularmusic,countryandwesternmusic,racerelations,technicaldevelopments,andthemusicbusinessonecanbeledeasilytotheconclusionthatrockandrollwassomenewanddifferentmusicwhichappearedsuddenly.ThispagebeginswiththeAfricanmusicaltraitsbroughtherebeginningin1619andattemptstotracetheirfusionwiththeEuropeanmusicbroughtherebythecolonists.ThestoryofthismusicalinteractionisalsothestoryofAmericanpopularmusicandincludestheplantationsongsofStephenFoster,theragtimeofScottJoplin,thebluesofBessieSmith,thejazzofCountBasie,andthejumpbandsofLouisJordan.TheknowledgeofthestreamofAmericanpopularmusicallowsonetounderstandthatrockandrollwasanaturalresultofthecombinedforcesthataffectedthemusic.ChangingtheWorld:Rock'n'RollCultureandIdeologybyDavidN.TownsendChapter1OriginsAllyoureallyneedtoknowabouttheoriginsofrock'n'rollisthatitstartedwithslavery.Thehistorybookscangiveyouthedetails;what'simportantisthatrock'n'rollcanbetracedinadirectlinetoanutterlyunnaturalphenomenon:theforceduprootingoftensofthousandsofAfricansfromtheirnativelandsandcultures,andtheirtransplantationtoanewworldasdifferentfromwhattheyhadknownasblackisdifferentfromwhite.Addinthefactthatfamiliesweresplitapart,slavesfromdifferenttribeswerethrowntogetheronthesameplantations,and,ofcourse,thesereluctantvisitorswerechained,whipped,imprisoned,andcompelledtoperformexcruciatinghardlaborforbarelysubsistencenourishment.Keepinmindthattheseconditionscontinued,onthiscontinent,forwelloveracentury,untillessthan150yearsago.Irealizethatthisishardlynews,butsometimesitseemsthatwhiteAmericanshaveforgotten,orwanttoforget,thatslaveryeverexisted,letalonesorecentlyasthe1860s.Thereareanynumberofwaystoputitinrevealingperspective.ThinkoftheconditionthatEuropeanculturehadachievedbythemid-1800s:theemergenceofImpressionistart;thegreatnovelsofHugo,Flaubert,Tolstoy,andDickens;theintellectualenlightenmentofdeTocquevilleandDescartes;therevolutionaryfermentofMarx.Anyaverageliberalartsstudentencountersmostofthesegreatculturaldevelopmentstosomedegree:thecoreofmodernWesterncivilizationwasformulatingoverseas.Meanwhile,Americansstillthrashedfellowhumansintopitifulservitude,andtreatedthemlegallyasnomorethanpersonalproperty.Thisunavoidableelementofournation'shistoryisignoredoverandoverbyideologicalchauvinistswhoopposeAffirmativeActionandcivilrightslegislation,whodecry"reversediscrimination"andclaimitis"unfair"totrytoforceintegrationortoameliorateAfricanAmericans'disadvantagesattheexpenseofinnocentEuropean(orAsian)Americans.("Hey,myancestorsimmigratedin1912.I'mnotresponsibleforslavery!")ThatanyonecouldfindinthepredominanceofpovertywithinblackcommunitiesinAmericaanythingbutthecontinuinglegacyofhumanbondageisunfathomable,andtrulyfrightening.Theonlyconceivableexplanationisthatsomepeoplekeepforgettingaboutslavery:"Whythehellareyousobentoverandweak?""Well,Iwasaslaveforfortyyears.Theybeatmetwiceaweek.""Oh,that'sright.Iforgot."Whythehellaresomanyblacksstuckinhopelessghettolives,resortingtodrugs,crime,andviolencetofillthevoidoftheirexistence?Becausetheirgreatgreatgreatgrandfatherswereslaves;theirgreatgreatgrandfatherswereilliterate,disenfranchisedsharecroppers;theirgreatgrandfathersweredirtpoorfarmersorlaborerswhomovedtoNortherncitieswhentheDepressionwipedoutwhatmeageropportunitiesremainedintheSouth;theirgrandfatherswereequallypoorchildrenofthefirstghettos,joblessanduneducated,withnohopeforescape;andtheirfathersfoundscarcelybetterchancesdespitetheprosperityofthepost-Waryears,thehopeofthecivilrightsmovement,andtheslowlyemergingsenseofunityamongAfricanAmericansasarace.Manyoftoday'syoungblacks,ofcourse,cannotlookbackthroughalineageoffathers,grandfathers,andsoon,becausesomany"fathers,"themselvesoftenlittlemorethanchildren,disappearedbeforeorsoonaftertheirprogenywereborn.Suchisthecycleofdeprivationwherehopeisunknown.Publicpolicyandindividualdeterminationhaveonlydentedthistragiclegacy;forthemajorityofAfricanAmericanstoday,slavery'sevilscarsremainopen.Yetthewhiteestablishmentforgetsaboutslavery,forgetsaboutblacks,really.A"Roots"comesalongandpoignantlyrevivesthesuppressedcollectivememoryforawhile,butamnesiasoonreturns.WhenaJesseJacksonpersistsinunderliningtheinjusticebetweentheraces,whiteAmericaisconcerned,orbemused,orinsulted,butonlyoccasionallyinspired,thewaytheyshouldbe,thewayotherwisedespairingblacksareinspired.Othercountrieshaveenduredslaveryandpaythepriceintheirownway.InAmerica,slaverywasmoredominant,moreintegraltothenation'seconomicandsocialfabricthananywhereelse,andinthemostwealthyandadvancedcountryonearth,slavery'spriceisthehighestofall--andthebillhasnotbeenpaidinfull.Tounderstandrock'n'roll,therefore,wemustunderstandwhatslaverywas,andwhereitleftthesonsanddaughtersofAfricanswhoknewnothingoftheEuropeanrootsofAmericanculture.Forslaveryprovidestheperfectrationale,theperfectexplanationforwhyrock'n'rollshouldstandapartfromothermusicalforms,asaculturalrevolutionuntoitself.Everysociety,afterall,hasitsindigenousmusic,whichservesasentertainment,accompanimenttoritualandceremony,bondingforce,storyteller,preserverofhistory.Rock'n'roll,certainly,ismodernAmericanfolkmusicintheserespects,successortoStephenFosterandColePorter.Butthatisonlyaminorfacetofrock'n'roll'splaceinAmerican,indeedinworldsocietysince1955,andthelargerelementsofrock'sinfluencereachfarbeyondthetraditionalculturaladhesivestatusofotherfolkmusics.Tosolidifythisclaim,andtoexplainit,wecanpointdirectlytoslavery,whichforciblymixedtheradicallydifferentelementsoftwoculturesinaboilingcauldron(ratherthanameltingpot),bringingtowhite,rural,agrarianAmericaaseriesofrhythmicandvocaltraditionsthatoriginatedontheothersideoftheplanetinAfrica,andaddinganimportantspiritual,melancholy,almostfatalisticsensibilitythatgrewupbyitselfintheslaves'imprisonedsouls.Thislastingredientiscrucial:theydidn'tsingtheBluesbackinAfrica.Rock'n'rollisanAfrican-Americanhybrid,butitsstrongestrootistheverysuffering,andsurvival,ofgenerationsofslaves,wholearnedhowmusiccouldhelpamantotranscendearthlypainforawhile.TheBluessingsofsadness,toil,andloss,butthereasonforsingingtheBluesistorelievethehurtthesethingscause.TheBlues,withitssimple,repetitiverhythmsandchordsandlyricalphrases,providesacomfortingcommunalmessagethatmusicianandaudiencecanshare,aslongastheyknowwherethesingeriscomingfrom.It'snowonderthatBluessingersweresopopularduringtheDepression,especiallyintheSouth,amongbothblackandwhiteaudiences.It'salsoeasytounderstandthestrongbondsbetweentheBlues(andlaterR&Bandrock'n'roll)andGospelmusic:fromasecularpointofview,singingabouttheLordliftingyouupandsingingabouttheBluesfallin'downlikerainarespirituallyequivalentacts.SowhilethemusicalinnovationsbroughttoAmericabytheAfricansinvolvedrhythmprimarily,alongwithnewvariationsontheuseofthehumanvoiceforbothmelodyandrhythm,theirmorefundamentalcontributiontothelegacythatwastospawnrock'n'rollwastheuseofthemusicitselfforemotional,spiritualpurposes.Therhythmsespecially,ofcourse,figuredprominentlyinthisapplication,becausethedrudgeryofrepetitiouswork--pickingendlessbalesofcotton,choppingwood,etc.--couldberelievedsomewhatbyasuperimposedmusicalrhythm.Inthiswaythefunctionandformofthemusicreinforcedthemselves.WhentheBluesevolvedintoamoregeneralstyleinthedecadesfollowingemancipation,therepetitiouselementremainedintact,partlybecauseitmadethemusiceasytolearnforfolkswhohadnoaccesstorefinedteachingorexpensiveinstruments.Thespiritualfunctionalsoremained,butevolved,astheoppressionoftheslavestransformedintomeredeprivation,hopelessnessgrewintomerepurposelessness.ButitisnotnearlysufficienttoidentifyblackmusicalheritagefromslaveworksongsthroughRagtime,Blues,Jazz,Gospel,R&B,andthelike,andsimplyextrapolatethelinefurthertoencompassRock'n'Roll.Rock'n'rollstartsfromthesefoundations,butitaddsmore,andwhatitprincipallyaddsiswhiteAmerica,bothinthemusicandintheaudience.WhiteAmericaslowlydiscoveredtheendearing,inspiringmusicalheritagethathadbecomecentraltoAfricanAmericans'lives,and,establishingatraditionthatispracticedtothisday,begantoimitateandadaptblackmusic.Thusthehybridformsarrived;atonetimeoranother,rock'n'rollhasincorporatedCountryandWestern,Swing,Classical,BigBand,Folk,andevenTinPanAlleymusicalelements,justasithasincorporatedBlues,R&B,andtheotherindigenousblackstyles.Itwouldbewrong,therefore,toclaimthatrock'n'rollisaninherently"black"music,althoughclearlywithoutthepresenceofAfricanslavesandtheirdescendantstherewouldhavebeennorock'n'rolltospeakof.It'shardertosaythatwithoutwhitestherewouldn'thavebeenrock'n'roll,partlybecauseit'shardtoimaginewhatthatwouldmeaninpractice--AmericanApartheid,perhaps:noopportunityfororattemptsatculturalintegration.ButsincewhiteAmericawaswhereallthewealthandpowerlay,therewasneveranyquestionthatthenaturaleconomicevolutionofblackmusic--orotherarts,orbusiness,orpolitics--wouldbetowardgainingwhitefavor,ifonlytoshareinthepie.WhiteAmerica,ontheotherhand,musthavetakentoblackmusicsolelybecauseitwasenjoyable,sincetherewasnopecuniaryincentiveinthepre-civilrightseratoembracetherelativelyisolated,unknownAfricanAmericanculture.Inanyevent,thetwogroupsmetandformedthefirstandstrongestcross-culturalartforminAmerica.Rock'n'rollbelongstothatheritageonly:themeetingofpeoples.InAmerica,suchameetingonpracticalphysicaltermswasuniqueaftertheCivilWar,althoughthehistoryofinternationalimmigrationandassimilationintheNewWorldformssomethingofaprecedentforthelearningofalientraditionsinthiscountrythatisprobablyunheardofanywhereelse.Tomyknowledge,noothercountrypubliclyacknowledgesSt.Patrick'sDay,theChineseNewYear,MardiGras,Halloween,St.Valentine'sDay,alltheJewishreligiousholidays,andthefullspectrumofChristianholidaystoanythingapproachingthedegreethattheUnitedStatesdoes.Morethanatokenrecognitionofinternationalcoexistence,however,rock'n'rollhasbecomeacultureuntoitself.Itisinfactoneofthefewuniquelyidentifiableelementsofwhatcanbedescribedas"American"culture:somethingthatdoesnotexistanywhereelseintheworldexceptasderivedfromitsAmericanroots.Someothersuchelementsmightincludeourpreoccupationwithtelevision,professionalteamsports,andautomobiles,andperhapsourcapitalistindustrialimperative(notthatcapitalismoriginatedhere,butwemayhaveelevatedittoanindustrialeconomysoonerandmoreextensivelythanothernations).HighTech--whateverthatmeans,presumablyindustrialapplicationsofpost-WorldWarIIscientificresearch,especiallyinsemiconductorsandinthephysicalandbiologicalsciences--mayalsobeapartofAmericanculture,butitismovingandchangingsofastacrosstheglobethatitisperhapsoneofthefirstfeaturesofWorldculture.Ifso,itmightcompetewithpost-1950srock'n'roll(or"rockmusic"generally)forthathonor,sincerockhaslongsincemovedwellacrossalmostallnationalboundaries.Lestweforget,itisworthcontemplatingbrieflytheothersignificanthistoricaleventsbetweentheemancipationoftheslavesandthebirthofthisinterculturalinfantinthemid-1950s.Acouplestandout:WorldWarsIandII.Thefirstwasimportant,inthiscontext,mostlyforindirectreasons,i.e.,itsetthestageforthesecond.ThetimeperiodandcircumstancesofWorldWarIalsobroughtaboutrapiddevelopmentsinthetechnologyofradiocommunication,whosecommercialapplicationstartinginthe1920slaythesinglemostvitalindustrialfoundationforrock'n'roll'seventualemergence.Quitesimply,priortoradio,therewasalmostnomeansofhearingmusicwithoutbeingpresentatitsliveperformance.Theoccasionalexceptionwasforthefortunatefewownersofphonographs,andthefortunatefeweramongmusicianswhohadtheirmusicrecorded.Ofcourse,radioandrecordingtechnologyhavebeencohabitatingsincetheearliestamateurbroadcastersspunclassicaldiscsintomakeshifttransmittersfromtheirgaragesforneighborhoodlisteners.Recordingistheolderofthepair,andrecordedmusicpredatesthetwentiethcentury,butonlywiththeadventofradiodidrecordsobtainthevehicletobecomeatrulymassmedium.Perhapstheoldesttruisminwhathascometobecalledthe"RecordingIndustry"isthatpeoplewon'tbuyarecordunlessthey'vehearditfirst(especiallyonebyanewgroupormusician).Radiocreatedameansforpeopletosamplerecords,andthustheopportunityforrecordsalestoproducesignificantprofits--significantenoughbythemiddleofthecenturytomakemillionairesoutofafew"recordingartists,"andtocreateanincentiveforcountlesssmalltimeentrepreneurstogetintothebusinessoffinding,developing,andmarketingsuchartistsontheirownindependentrecordlabels.Thatradioisthespinalchordinthisindustry'snervoussystemisfairlyobvioustoday;whatisworthrememberingishowrelativelynewradioistothehistoryofmusic.Itsdramaticriseasanentertainmentmediuminthelate1920s,anddominanceofAmericancultureinthesubsequenttwodecadesbeforetelevision'sascension,directlyandcruciallyparalleledthetransformationsandcross-pollinationsofmusicalstylesthatfinallybecamerock'n'roll.Inaway,althoughmostnostalgicmemoriesoftheGoldenDaysofradiofocusonproto-television-typedramas,comedies,newsflashes,andadvertisements,radio'smostenduringlegacymaybethismusicalmetamorphosisthatbeganwiththeinceptionofradiotechnologyandreachedmaturityjustasradiowasgivingwaytotelevisioninAmerica'slivingrooms.Indeed,evenradio'srelativefallfromprominenceasamulti-faceted,universalentertainmentsourcemayhavespurredrock'n'roll'ssuccess,becausewithtelevisiontakingoveralltheserialandvarietyprograms,therewasalotofspareairtimeneedingtobefilled,andrecordedmusicwastheideal,inexpensivechoice.Duringradio'sheyday,however,musicwasonlyoneofapotpourriofselectionsavailablealongthedial--butitwasthisverydiversityofprogrammingthatallowedmusicitselftoevolve.Neverbeforehaditbeenpossiblefordifferentracialandregionalpopulationstoencountereachother'snativemusicalstyleswithoutactuallyventuringouttoaliveperformance,whichinthecaseoftheBluesmighthavemeantanimpromptubackyardboogiesession,orjustaslikelyaspiritedgatheringbehindstateprisonwalls;orinthecaseofwhitecountrymusic,ahoedownonthefarm.Ineitherevent,whiteandblackmusicloverswouldnothavefeltparticularlycomfortableintheothers'environment.Withradio'snon-discriminatoryaccesstotransmissionsfromanywherewithinthevicinity--whichonaclearnightcanamounttohundredsofmilesinanydirection--widelydiversegroupscouldmeetandlearnabouteachotherwithouthavingtotravel,ortohangoutwheretheyweredrasticallyoutofplace.Itwasevenpossibletoencounterappealing,unfamiliarmusicsomewherealongthedialandnotrealizehowrelativelyalienwasitssource.Thatis,itwasnosecretthatcertainstationsorprogramsplayedprimarilyblackor"race"music,andmoreoftenthannotvocaldistinctionsalonewouldrevealasinger'sethnicity,buttonoticethosedistinctionsonehadtobereasonablyawareoftheothergroupinthefirstplace,andfurthermoreonehadtobethinkingintermsofracialdifferences,ratherthanmusicforitsownsake.Formanylisteners,itwasenoughtodiscoversomethingdifferentandexcitingontheradio;theycouldenjoyitwithoutworryingaboutitslargersocialsignificance.Andwhenthe"audience"consistedofmusiciansthemselves--peoplewhowereinterestedindevelopingtheirownstylisticvariations--racialorculturaldifferencesweretrulyirrelevantcomparedwiththeinspirationaffordedbyanewsound.Imaginehowthatoddbeat,oruseofguitarorhorns,orthatfunnylyricaltwistorupliftingvoice,cracklingacrosstheeveningairwaves,musthavesoundedtothemusicalentrepreneursofthe1920sand1930s.ImaginehowhearingBluesgreatslikeBessieSmithandRobertJohnsonforthefirsttimeaffectedfledglingcomposersstrugglingtoadapttheirsongstocontemporarytastes.EventheJazzgiantsoftheera--LouisArmstrong,CountBasie,DukeEllington,andtherest--extendedtheirinfluencethroughradioplayandrecordsales,aswellasthroughmoviesandsheetmusicdistribution,toreachdistantaudiencesthatwouldhavebeeninaccessibleotherwise,andtheirconsequenteffectuponthegrowthofsuchhybridformsasWesternSwingandurban"Jump"Blueswasconsiderable.Still,thebulkofthismusicalexperimentationwastakingplacefarfromtheawarenessofthegeneralpublic,atwhatmightbethoughtofasthe"cuttingedge"ofU.S.culturaldevelopment.MostAmericanswerelittleconcernedwithmusicatall,asthecountrystruggledtowithstandtheravagesoftheDepression,andhurtledonceagaintowardWaroverseas.WhatmusictheydidattendtoconsistedmostlyofHollywoodandBroadwayshowtunes,bigbandnumbers,andthecrooningofsuchemergingstarsasBingCrosby,FrankSinatra,andtheAndrewsSisters.Musicitself,althoughalwaysimportant,wassimplynotascentralanelementofaverageAmericans'dailylivesasithasbeenforthoseofuswhogrewupintheRockEra.Therewere,ofcourse,no"stereos"noranyequipmentcapableofreproducingmusicataqualitylevelremotelyapproachingliveorin-studiosound.Mostrockfans,Iwouldguess,wouldsoontireofthemusicifthebestsoundsystemstheyhadavailablewereequivalentto1940svintagemonauralphonographs,oreventhebestradiosofthetime.Insuchanenvironment,acatchytuneandsing-alonglyricswereaboutthebestonecouldexpecttoholdawideaudience'sinterest;it'sdoubtfulthatafuzz-boxandHendrix-stylefeedbackwouldhavemademuchofanimpression.Owningalargerecordcollection,whichtodayisascommonasfillingafewbookshelveswithpaperbacks,wasforseriouslydevotedfansonly,usuallyClassicalorJazzaficionados.Lifeinthe1930sand1940sjustinvolvedothersetsoftastes,interests,andprioritiesforthemajorityofthepopulation.AndasofDecember7,1941,theprincipalpreoccupationofvirtuallytheentirepopulationbecametheWar.Nowhere'sanothertopicthatalotofusdon'tkeepinperspective,Ithink.TheWar.Theentirerock'n'rollera,theentirerockgeneration,hasbeena"post-War"phenomenon,whichmeansthatnearlyallofus,almosteveryoneinvolvedwithandinterestedinrock,didnotexperienceanddoesnotremembertheWar.Astheyearsgoby,thepercentageoftheU.S.populationansweringtothatdescriptiongrowslargerandlarger;we'velongsincebeenamajority.Asapost-Warchildmyself,byabout14years,IcannobetterspeakfrompersonalknowledgeofthatperiodthanIcanofslaveryortheDepression,butIsense--inmyparentsandgrandparents,intheoldergenerationofpoliticians,businesspersons,retirees,andveterans,intherecollectionsofbooks,filmsphotographs,headlines--somethingofthemeaningoftheWarforthosewholivedthroughit.Orperhapsmoreaccurately,IsensetheabsenceofthatmeaningforthoseofuswhodidnotknowtheWar.ForAmerica,WorldWarIIlastedonly3yearsand8months:notlongfromthepointofviewofone'sentirelifetime.Tomostofus,thememoriesofanyspecificfouryearperiodofadulthoodsoonbecomeblurredaswegrowandchangeandencounterperpetualnewnessthroughlife.Change,infact,issoconstantforusthesedaysthatthemid-1970s,say,1974through1978,seemancientandlargelyirrelevanttotoday'sworld.ForthosewholivedthroughtheWar,however,Ibelieveitwasdifferent.FortwoorthreeentiregenerationsofAmericans--schoolchildren,youngadults,oldercitizens,allofthe100millionorsopeoplelivingandawareinthiscountryduringtheyears1941through1945--theWarbecamethemostsignificant,indeliblememoryoftheirlives,coloringandshapingandcontrollingtheireverythoughtandperceptionoftheworldforallthedecadesthatfollowed.ThisistosaynothinginparticularofthosewhoactuallyfoughtintheWar,andcamehomeinjuredorheroicornotatall;nordoIreferatthemomenttoEuropeansandtheirfrontyardviewoftheWar,noreventotherefugeeswhofledherefromdestructionandgenocide--allthesewerenaturallychangedforeverbyWorldWarII:theywereamongitsvictims.I'mpointingrathertothevastgroupofAmericanswhohadnodirectpersonalinvolvementwiththeHell-on-Earthoccurringoverseas,whosimplystayedhomeanddidtheirpart,sendingoffsonsandhusbandsandbrotherstofight,buyingwarbonds,writingletters,runningairraiddrills,watchingnewsreels,andhopingthattheboyswouldcomehomesaf