望远镜选购指南

望远镜选购指南 望远镜选购指南(1):望远镜知识入门 (2005年10月25日 11:18:26) ?作者: [1] 望远镜知识入门——选购望远镜必读(前言) 前 言 我们经常听到来购买望远镜的朋友一开口就问:“你们的望远镜能看多远,”、“你们的望远镜能放大多少倍,”、“你们的望远镜能把天上的星星放多大,”……诸如此类的问 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 反映了公众对于望远镜和天文知识的缺乏。 所谓“看多远”、“放多大”的提法既不科学，也没有意义，望远镜的品质也决不是这样来评价的。 事实上，“看多远”完全取决于被观测目标的亮度，只要目标足够明亮，不用望远镜也能看到无穷远，譬如我们用肉眼能看到的6000颗左右的恒星，实际上都可认为在无穷远处;而“放多大”更是因缺乏天文基本知识才会提出的问题，这是因为我们所见的“天上的星星”99.9%以上都是恒星，而恒星离我们如此遥远，所以即使用地球上最大的望远镜来观测，它们仍然只是一个个几何亮点(亮点越小，表明望远镜的光学成像质量越高;反之，如果在望远镜中看到恒星有了视面甚至有了颜色，则可断定其光学系统存在严重弊病)，只有那些太阳系中的天体(如太阳、行星、卫星、彗星等)或太阳系外有视面的天体(如星云、星系、星团等)才能借助于望远镜放大。 那么“放大倍数”是不是选购望远镜所首先要考虑的性能指标呢,绝对不是～它不但排不上第一，而且如选择过大，将导致成像质量严重恶化。 看到这里，一定有不少朋友感到疑惑:“怎么和我原先想的完全不一样,” 是的，正因为大多数人缺乏这方面的基本知识，所以我们编写了这篇文章，希望能对大家在选购和使用望远镜方面有所帮助。 下面分为 “怎样选择双筒望远镜”和“怎样选择天文望远镜(之一 , 之四)”五篇文章向大家作介绍(建议先阅读“观赏镜和夜视仪” 目录 工贸企业有限空间作业目录特种设备作业人员作业种类与目录特种设备作业人员目录1类医疗器械目录高值医用耗材参考目录 下的“怎样选择双筒望远镜”一文后再读“天文望远镜”目录下“怎样选择天文望远镜(之一 , 之四)”的文章)。 望远镜选购指南(2):怎样选择双筒望远镜 (2005年10月25日 11:22:13) ?作者: [1] 市场上有五花八门的双筒望远镜，它们的外观、大小、价格和用途各不相同，有的用于观赏风景、体育比赛和文艺演出，有的用于观察鸟类和其他动物，有的用来进行定点监视(如森林、电业、公安部门等)，也有人用来欣赏夜空中神奇美丽的天体……如果你想选购一架适合于自己的双筒望远镜，那么必须知道下面的知识: 望远镜型号中的数字代表什么意义, 市场上出售的双筒望远镜上，都标有这样的数字:“7´35”、“8´50”、“15´70”等，“´”号前面的数字代表放大倍数(上述三个望远镜的放大倍数分别为7、 8、 15)，“´”号后面的数字代表双筒望远镜单个物镜(靠近观察物一边的镜子)的直径，以毫米为单位(上述三个望远镜物镜的口径分别为35、50、70mm)。望远镜型号中所出现的类似数字也表示相同的意义，如:上述三款望远镜的型号中分别有“0735”、“0850”、“1570”的数字。还有一些较高档的变倍型望远镜，它们的放大倍数是可以在一定的范围内连续改变的，如“082450”表示它的放大倍数可以从,倍连续变化为24倍，物镜口径为50mm;“206078” 表示它的放大倍数可以从20倍连续变化至60倍，物镜口径为78mm…… 放大倍数(倍率)和视场 望远镜的放大倍数(倍率)是通过望远镜观测时将目标的张角放大的倍数(通俗地说，就是望远镜拉近物体的能力，譬如用7倍的望远镜观测700米处的物体，就相当于用肉眼观测100米处物体的效果)，它的数值等于物镜焦距与目镜焦距之比。在物镜焦距已经固定的情况下，只要变换目镜的焦距就能改变望远镜的放大倍数。视场是通过望远镜能看到的范围大小，视场越大，观测范围就越宽广，感觉也越舒适。视场常用千米处视界(可观测的宽度，以米为单位)或换算成角度来表示。视场的大小与放大倍数成反比，放大倍数越大，视场越小。 放大倍数越大越好吗, 绝大部分人相信，望远镜的放大倍数越高，看到的效果越好，事实却正相反，在物镜口径相同的情况下，放大倍数越高，成像质量就越差，看到的景物越模糊。你如果是用望远镜来观赏风光、演出、比赛……，一般选用7,8倍的放大倍数最为适宜，因为用这种低倍镜观察，像会更明亮、更稳定，视场更大;如果选用10倍以上的高倍镜观察，你会发现像是变大了，但视场却变小了(如看球场只能看到一个角、看舞台只能看到几个演员……)，同时像也变 暗，稳定性变差(抖动得历害)，由于一般人很难用手较长时间地拿稳一架10倍以上的双筒望远镜，所以实际上你会发现在望远镜中很不容易找到目标。世界各国军用望远镜大都以6,10倍为主，我国的军用望远镜主要是7倍和8倍的，就是因为清晰稳定的成像十分重要。 一些经销商信口雌黄，吹嘘自己的望远镜能放大几十、几百倍，以虚假的高倍率来吸引、欺骗顾客，使不少消费者受骗上当。打个比方，没有足够大的口径保证的放大倍数就如同没有足够高的分辨率保证的照相底片，如果他们的双筒望远镜真能放大几百倍，那么你所看到的景物就如同把一张普通底片放大到一个运动场那么大，你说还能看清楚什么吗,～相信读过这篇文章的朋友是决不会再去相信那些鬼话了。 假如你需要观察某些小范围景物的细节和特写(如观鸟、动物、观测天体等)或者还要摄影录像等，则必须使用10倍以上的望远镜(为了成像清晰，口径也得相应增大)，但此时你一定要为双筒望远镜配一个稳固的三角架。 看得清不清楚主要由什么因素决定, 望远镜的通光口径(大致上相当于物镜直径)越大，收集光的能力越强，看到的像就会越清楚(专业上称为“分辨率”或“分辨本领”越高)，一架望远镜通光口径的大小限制了它所允许的放大倍数，所以你若想要看得更清楚，不是要增加放大倍数，而是要增大通光口径。但对于手持式的双筒望远镜来说，物镜口径的增大会使望远镜变得笨重，所以手持双筒望远镜的口径不宜超过60mm，否则不用三脚架就无法拿稳它。如果你是经常在明亮处使用双筒望远镜。那么口径稍小一些没什么太大关系，但如果你想在较为暗弱的光照下观测目标，比如观看照明不太好的舞台、阴暗处的动物或观测天体，那么口径大一些就显得十分重要了，它会直接影响到你能否看清楚目标。 当然，望远镜中的景物清不清楚，除了通光口径外，还与其他诸多因素有关，譬如镜片所用材料、形状、结构、磨制、胶合、镀膜、安装、调试工艺以及目镜类型、质量等，所以即使是口径相同的望远镜，也会因上述因素的不同而导致成像质量的巨大差别，业外人士对这些通常是难以了解和鉴别的。 一般来说，你应该根据自己的使用目的、使用环境、经济条件等来选择口径、重量、大小、、质量、价格等都适合于你的双筒望远镜。 什么因素会影响观测景物的亮度, 如果用物镜口径(以mm为单位)除以放大倍数，如“35,7”、“50,,”、“70/15”，那么你就可以得到以毫米为单位的通过望远镜射到眼睛处的光束直径。这个数值越大，你眼睛接收到的光或被观测目标信息就越多，这个数值称为望远镜的出射瞳孔。它对我们选择望远镜有什么用处呢, 假定你准备购买一个用于观察鸟类的双筒望远镜，并且你希望用它在黎明或傍晚观鸟， 而那时的鸟常常落在树丛中，藏在暗影里。如果你买一个10x25的双筒望远镜，那么出射瞳孔直径为25,10= 2.5(mm),而我们眼睛瞳孔的直径在不同明暗条件下的变化范围约为2mm至7mm。光越暗，瞳孔直径越大。如果你准备用双筒望远镜在暗处观察，则应选择望远镜的出射瞳孔与你的眼睛在暗处时的瞳孔直径相近的双筒望远镜，这样才能最有效地利用望远镜所接到的信息。那么“7X 50”的双筒望远镜如何呢,它的出射瞳孔为50/7=7.14mm，几乎与人眼在最暗处的瞳孔直径相等，它收集到的光能被你的眼睛高效率地接收到，所以是较理想的选择。不过由于人眼瞳孔直径的变化范围因人而异(比如四十多岁人的瞳孔直径就只能扩张到4,5mm)，而且正常使用望远镜大都在白天，所以出射瞳孔一般选择在,,,mm就可以了。 什么叫镀膜,镀膜有什么用处, 如果你注意观察，你会发现望远镜的物镜表面呈现不同的颜色:红、蓝、绿、黄、紫等，这就是平常所说的镀膜(也称增透膜，是特制的化学薄膜层)。如果不镀膜，会有50,的光线在通过物镜时被漫反射掉而无法到达你的眼睛，并且造成一种雾茫茫的现象～镀膜可以提高透光率，增加亮度与色彩的对比度、鲜明度，大大改善观测效果。所以，现在的正规望远镜厂家都不同程度地为望远镜镜片进行光学镀膜。一般镀膜层越多、反光越小，效果就越好。镀膜的颜色需根据镜片的光学材料与设计要求而定。在正常使用情况下，蓝膜、绿膜都较为优秀。 选购双筒望远镜时要选择全镜面多层镀膜的，为什么?请看下述各种镀膜的区别: 光学镀膜:这是最低级的镀膜，价格较便宜，一般是一个镜面镀单层膜，一般镀物镜。 全镀膜:所有的镜片都要镀单层膜。这样会使光的通过率从50,提高到80,。 多层镀膜:至少有一个镜面镀不止一层的膜。 全镜面多层镀膜:这是最高级的镀膜。它表示对所有的镜面都进行多层镀膜，可将光的通过率提高到90,95,～ 谨防假冒“红外夜视望远镜” 现在市场上能看到不少镜面反光很强、亮闪闪的红膜望远镜，一些经销商把它们称为“红外线”、“次红外线”、 “红宝石镀膜”等等，还会告诉你这是能在夜间观测的“红外夜视望远镜”。请朋友们千万不要上当～真正的红外夜视仪是通过接收人眼所不可见的红外线，采用光电管成像，需要用电池才能观测，白天不能使用，与望远镜的结构原理完全不同，价格也非常昂贵，根据它所采用的微光管的档次，价格至少也得在数千至数万元甚至更高(军级)～如果说几十元、几百元就能买到“红外夜视望远镜”，岂非痴人说梦～其实，那种亮闪闪的红膜因对光线反射严重而使成像亮度大大降低，只有当阳光照耀在雪地上使景物变得刺眼时，它倒是可以发挥降低亮度的作用。 如果戴眼镜，应该怎样选择双筒望远镜, 随着你的眼睛逐渐靠近目镜，当你正好能看清楚全部视场或看清楚视场中的目标时，你的眼睛与目镜间的距离称为“出瞳距离”。不同望远镜的出瞳距离不同，一般在5- 20mm之间。目镜上面的胶皮眼罩就是为了使观察时眼睛处于合适距离、感觉舒适而设置的。如果你需要戴着眼睛来观看双筒望远镜，那么眼睛与目镜之间的距离变大，所以要选择出瞳距离大一些的。 何种型号双筒望远镜适合星空观测, 假如你用双筒望远镜来观测星空，那么物镜口径是最关键的，因为它直接决定了望远镜的分辨本领。 如果你要手持双筒望远镜，则口径选择50或60mm,放大倍数选择7,,倍为佳;如果你计划将双筒望远镜固定在三脚架上使用，那么口径可以增大到70,80mm, 放大倍数则可增大到20倍。 当然，如果你希望取得更好的星空观测效果，那么最好还是选购一架天文望远镜。 望远镜选购指南(3):天文望远镜的基本光学性能指标 (2005年10月25日 11:24:18) ?作者: [1] 随着我国教育事业的不断发展，作为六大基础学科之一的天文学越来越受到人们的重视。一些地方的大、中、 小学 小学生如何制作手抄报课件柳垭小学关于三违自查自纠报告小学英语获奖优质说课课件小学足球课教案全集小学语文新课程标准测试题 都先后建立了小型天文台、天象厅，天文爱好者的队伍也日益壮大。对于天文爱好者和从事天文科普教学的老师来说，拥有一架品质优良的科普天文望远镜是最基本的要求;经济条件好的单位和个人也希望建造天文圆顶，配置较为专业的天文望远镜和各种先进的终端设备(如CCD照相与传送、处理系统等)。 在天文观测的对象中，有的天体有视面，有的没有可分辨的视面;有的亮度极强，有的又极其暗弱;有的运动快速，有的只作周日旋转……五花八门，千差万别。观测者应根据观测目标和目的，选用不同的望远镜，或采用不同的方法进行观测。一般说来，普及性的天文观测多属于综合性的，要考虑“一镜多用”。所以在选择天文望远镜时，一定要充分了解它的基本性能指标、主要分类和各自的优缺点以及如何正确选购、使用、维护和保养等基本知识。 提示:在阅读以下 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 之前，最好先“怎选择双筒望远镜”一文，以掌握相关的基本知识。 天文望远镜的基本光学性能指标 评价一架望远镜的好坏，首先要看它的光学性能，其次看它的机械性能(指向精度与跟踪精度)。 光学望远镜的光学性能一般用下列指标来衡量: 1.物镜口径(D) 望远镜的物镜口径一般指有效口径，也就是通光口径(不是简单指镜头的直径大小)，是望远镜聚光本领的主要标志，也决定了望远镜的分辨率(通俗地说，就是看得清看不清)。它是望远镜所有性能参数中的第一要素。望远镜的口径愈大，聚光本领就愈强，愈能观测到更暗弱的天体，看亮天体也更清楚，它反映了望远镜观测天体的能力，因此，爱好者在经济条件许可的情况下，应尽量选择口径较大的望远镜。 2.焦距(f) 望远镜的焦距主要是指物镜的焦距。望远镜光学系统往往由两个有限焦距的系统组成，其中第一个系 统(物镜)的像方焦点与第二个系统(目镜)的物方焦点相重合。物镜焦距常用f表示，而目镜焦距常用f'表示。 比如F700´60天文望远镜的物镜焦距(f)为700mm。目镜PL9的焦距(f')为9mm。 物镜焦距f是天体摄影时底片比例尺的主要标志。对于同一天体而言，焦距越长，天体在底片上成的像就 越大。 3.相对口径(A)与焦比(1/A) 相对口径A又称光力，它是望远镜的有效口径D与焦距f之比，即A=D/f。它的倒数(1/A)叫焦比(即 f/D，照相机上称为光圈数)。例如70060天文望远镜的相对口径A(=60/700)?1/12，焦比f/D(=700/60) ?11.67。相对口径越大对观测行星、彗星、星系、星云等延伸天体越有利，因为它们的成像照度与望远 镜的相对口径的平方(A2)成正比;而流星或人造卫星等所谓线形天体的成像照度与相对口径A和有效口 径D的积(D2/f)成正比。因此，作天体摄影时，要注意选择合适的A或焦比。 一般说来，折射望远镜的相对口径都比较小，通常在1/15,1/20，而反射望远镜的相对口径都比较大， 常在1/3.5,1/5。观测有一定视面的天体时，其视面的线大小和f成正比，其面积与f2成正比。象的亮度与收集到的光量成正比，即与D2成正比，和象的面积成反比，即与f2成反比。 4.放大率(或倍数)(G) 对目视望远镜而言，放大率(倍数)是观测目标的角度放大率(相当于将目标拉近到倍数分之一)。它等于物镜焦距f和目镜焦距f'之比，即放大率(G)=f/f'。如70060天文望远镜若使用H20目镜，则放大率为700/20=56´(倍)，只要变换目镜，对同一物镜就可以改变望远镜的放大倍数，目镜焦距越短，得到的放大倍数就越大，所以我们看到，要提高放大倍数其实并不困难。但是正如我们在“怎样选择双筒望远镜”一章中已经介绍的那样，放大倍数越高，成的像就越模糊而且越不稳定。因为天文望远镜和显微镜不一样，地面天文观测的效果如何，除仪器的优劣外，还受地球大气的明晰度和宁静度的影响，受观测地的环境等诸多因素的制约。一般每架天文望远镜都配有几个不同焦距的目镜，也就是有几个不同的放大倍率可选用。观测时，绝不是以最大倍率为最佳，而应以观测目标最清晰为准。而且，一架天文望远镜的最大放大倍数也不是可以随意增大的，由于受物镜分辨本领，大气明晰度、宁静度及望远镜出瞳直径不能过小等因素的制约，根据观测目标及大气的实际情况，最大放大率一般控制在物镜口径毫米数的1,2倍。比如70060天文望远镜在大气宁静度极好的情况下，其最大有效放大倍率不应超过2´60,120´(倍)，在一般情况下，当放大率超过物镜口径毫米数的1倍时，成像质量就不太理想了。 5.视场角(ω) 能够被望远镜良好成像的天空区域的角直径称为望远镜的视场或视场角(ω)。望远镜的视场往往在设计时已被确定。望远镜的视场与放大率成反比，放大率越大，视场越小。不同的光学系统、不同的成像质量(由像差大小而造成)、不同的口径、不同的焦距，决定了望远镜不同的视场的大小(对天体摄影来说，底片或CCD的尺寸也会约束视场的大小)。反射望远镜的视场最小，一般都小于1度;折射望远镜较大，能达到几度;折反射望远镜的视场最大，能达到十几度甚至几十度。 6.分辨本领 望远镜的分辨本领由望远镜的分辨角(δ)的倒数(1/δ)来衡量，分辨角通常以角秒为单位，是指刚刚能被望远镜分辩开的天球上两发光点之间的角距。对于目视望远镜，根据光的衍射原理可推得望远镜的理论分辨角(相对于人眼最敏感的波长λ=555纳米而言)为:δ”=140/D(mm) (式中D为物镜的有效口径)。 由于大气宁静度与望远镜系统像差等的影响,望远镜的实际分辨角要远比理论分辨角大(较好的望远镜也只能介于0.5到2角秒之间)。 望远镜的分辨率越高，越能观测到更暗、更多的天体，看到的像也越清楚。所以说，高分辨率是望远镜最重要的性能指标之一。 7.极限星等(贯穿本领) 星等是用来表示天体相对亮度(即晴好天气在地面上观测的亮度，而不是它们的真实亮度)的数值，星等数值越大，亮度越小。例如:太阳约为-26.7等、满月(平均亮度)约为-12.7等、天狼星约为-1.6等、织女星约为0.1等、牛郎星约为0.9等、北极星(小熊座α)约为2.1等……1等星约比6等星亮100倍。在晴朗无月的夜间，如果我们将望远镜指向天顶，所能看到的最暗星的星等，称为望远镜的极限星等(也称贯穿本领)。人眼一般能看见的最暗星等为约为6等，而望远镜可以看见的最暗星等主要是由望远镜的有效口径决定的，口径愈大，看见的星等也就愈高(如50毫米的望远镜可看见10等星，500毫米的望远镜就可看到15等星)。当然，实际上除了望远镜的有效口径外，极限星等还与望远镜物镜的吸收系数、大气吸收系数和天空背景亮度等诸多因素有关;对于照相观测，极限星等还与露光时间及底片特性等有关。 天文望远镜型号中的数字代表什么意义, 和双筒望远镜不同的是，天文望远镜型号中并不出现放大倍数，而代之以物镜的焦距。例如: “70076”表示该望远镜物镜的焦距为700mm,物镜口径为76mm;“1800150” 表示该望远镜物镜的焦距为1800mm,物镜口径为150mm……也有将口径放在焦距之前来表示的，如以上两款望远镜也有表示为“76700”和“1501800”的。不管如何表示，其中数字较大的那个为焦距，数字较小的那个为物镜口径，是不容易搞错的。 望远镜选购指南(4):天文望远镜的光学系统与机械装置 (2005年10月25日 11:27:33) ?作者: [1] 天文望远镜的光学系统 根据物镜结构的不同，天文望远镜大致可以分为以下三大类: 1.折射望远镜 折射望远镜是用透镜作物镜将光线汇聚的系统。世界上第一架天文望远镜就是伽利略制造的折射望远镜，它是采用一块凸透镜作为物镜的，是最简单的一种望远镜。因而有的天文爱好者买了一块透镜，以为就解决了望远镜的物镜问题。其实，由于玻璃对不同颜色光线的折射率不同(导致焦距不同)，会产生严重的色差，单块透镜成像还会产生较严重的象差(即“象”与“物”在形状与颜色方面的失真)。举例来说，一颗遥远的恒星在优质望远镜系统中应该成像为一个白色的光点(光点越小其光学系统质量越高，而在劣质望远镜中它会变成一个 彩色的光斑——很多人恰恰在这一点上存在模糊概念，举一个真实的例子:在1979~1980年哈雷彗星回归时，我们亲耳听到一些来我们天文系观看哈雷彗星的参观者抱怨说，他们在别处望远镜中看到的哈雷彗星是彩色的，而在我们的望远镜中却是白色的，认为我们的望远镜质量不好，令他们失望，殊不知，他们恰恰是把伪劣与优质弄了个颠倒～)。 因此，现在正规的折射(或折反射)天文望远镜的物镜大都由2,4块透镜组成复合透镜，或采用特殊昂贵的光学玻璃制作(如美国Meade公司的ED系列)，或将改正镜的镜面磨制成较为复杂的非球面(如施密特系统)等，用来尽可能消除色差与其他像差(但“残余色差”不可能完全消除)。通常折射望远镜的相对口径较小，即焦距长，底片比例尺(单位角距离的天体在底片上成像的距离)大，从而分辨率高，比较适合于做天体测量方面的工作(如测量恒星的位置、双星的角距等)。当然由于它的相对口径(物镜口径,焦距)较小，星象的亮度(所谓“光力”)会减弱，拍摄暗天体时的曝光时间要增加。 折射望远镜由于对物镜光学玻璃的材质和制作工艺的要求较高，所以成本较高。由于它的镜身特别长，所以限制了它口径的增加，一般业余用的折射天文望远镜口径最大不超过220mm,若再要加大口径，成本将无法承受(相比之下，另两种望远镜的成本要低得多)。但对于小口径望远镜来说，它的制作成本还不算很高，而它的优点是用途较广(既可用于天文观测，也可用来观赏风光)，使用和维护较方便，还是比较适合于爱好者选购。 2.反射望远镜 反射望远镜的物镜是反射镜，为了消除像差，一般制成抛物面镜或抛物面镜加双曲面镜组成卡塞格林系统。在这种系统中，天体的光线在进入目镜前只受到反射，目前反射望远镜在天文观测中的应用已十分广泛。由于镜面材料在光学性能上没有特殊的要求，且没有色差问题，也不需要极长的镜筒，因此，它与折射系统相比，可以制成大口径的望远镜，也可以使用多镜面拼镶技术等;而镜面在镀膜后，可获得从紫外到红外波段良好的反射率;因此较适合于进行恒星物理方面的工作(恒星的测光与分光)，目前在世界上设计和建造的大口径望远镜都是采用的反射系统，遗憾的是反射望远镜的反射镜面需要定期镀膜，故它在科普望远镜中的应用受到了限制。 反射望远镜由于工作焦点的不同又分为牛顿系统、卡塞格林(R—C)系统(如我国最大的2.16米望远镜)和折轴系统等，业余爱好者使用的反射望远镜多为牛顿系统，从外形上看，它与折射与折反射望远镜最大的不同是它的观测目镜在望远镜镜筒的前端(如图)。对业余爱好者来说，其突出的优点是没有色差且价格最低。 由于反射望远镜的反射镜面在观测时是完全敞开在空气中，没有镜筒与物镜等的保护，所以极易受到尘埃与空气中氧气等的污染与氧化，需要定期拆卸下来清洗、镀膜与重新安装校准，这对于没有经验的爱好者来说是相当困难的事。另外，反射望远镜由于视场很小(一般都小于1?)，因此它只能用于天文观测，不能用来观赏风光等，这就使得反射望远镜的应用受到了限制。 所以对观测经验不足的爱好者来说，我们一般不推荐购买反射望远镜 3.折反射望远镜 顾名思义是将折射系统与反射系统相结合的一种光学系统，它的物镜既包含透镜又包含反射镜，天体的光线要同时受到折射和反射。这种系统的特点是便于校正轴外像差。以球面镜为基础，加入适当的折射透镜(也称“改正镜”)，用以校正球差，获得良好的成像质量。按照改正镜形状的不同，这类望远镜又分为马克苏托夫—卡塞格林系统和施密特—卡塞格林系统(如美国Meade LX200 GPS-SMT望远镜)。由于折反射望远镜具有视场大、光力强、能消除几种主要像差的优点，适合于观测有视面天体(彗星、星系、弥散星云等)，并可进行巡天观测。另外，由于它的光线在镜筒内通过反射走了一个来回，所以与同样焦距的折射望远镜相比，其镜筒缩短了一半以上，使整架望远镜的体积、份量大大减小，便于携带进行流动观测。它美中不足的是改正镜很难磨制，所以成本较高，也无法把口径做得很大。但总的来说，由于它优良的成像质量和轻便性、多用途等突出的优点，很适合天文爱好者使用 天文望远镜的机械装置 由于地球的自转，天空中的所有天体都围绕着地球的自转轴，沿着天球上的赤纬圈作东升西落的周日运动，因此，望远镜所对准的天体，很快便会跑出视场，望远镜需经常不断地调整方向，才能始终对准目标，这就要求望远镜必须安置在一个可以任意自由调整方向的装置上，这种装置有以下两种类型: 1.地平式装置 地平装置是望远镜装置中最简单的一种结构形式，它有两根相互垂直的旋转轴，一根位于水平面内，叫水平轴(也即高度轴)，可将望远镜在?90?的范围内调节高度;另一根在铅锤方向，叫垂直轴(也即方位轴)，可将望远镜在0,360?的范围内调节方位。我们平时所见到的照相机、电影摄影机、摄像机所用的三脚架就是这种地平式装置。望远镜镜筒可以围绕两个轴单独作上下或水平转动。它的优点是结构简单、紧凑，重量对称，稳定性好，造价较低，可架设口径较大的望远镜，圆顶随动控制简单。缺点是由于水平与垂直两个转动方向与天体作周日转动的方向都不一致，所以望远镜在跟踪天体时必须两个轴同时运动，操作比较麻烦;并且长期跟踪时天体的像会在焦平面上旋转，所以不能进行长时间曝光拍摄;另外在天顶处有一无法观测的盲区。 2.赤道式装置 赤道式装置也有两根相互垂直的轴，一根轴与地球自转轴平行，也即它和地平面的交角等于当地的地理纬度，此轴叫赤经轴(或称极轴)，它是跟踪轴，即望远镜在跟踪天体时，围绕其转动。在科普型天文望远镜中，它往往设计成既能手动又能电动跟踪。望远镜围绕此跟踪轴的转速是24h(小时)转一圈，也即15?/h,或15’/min(分钟)，与天体的周日运动转速完全一致，所以可以实现望远镜同步跟踪天体的周日视运动，而且跟踪时星象在焦平面上不会 旋转，所以可以长时间曝光拍摄。另一根轴叫赤纬轴，望远镜绕它转动时，其指向是沿着与天体的周日运动垂直的方向(即赤纬方向)变化，在跟踪时，望远镜完全不需要绕它旋转，仅仅在找星时才需要绕它转动，因此，科普望远镜大多将望远镜设计成仅能绕赤纬轴手动旋转(在专业望远镜中则必须兼具手动与电动两种功能)。赤道式装置的望远镜按结构主要有德国式、英国式、摇篮式、马蹄式与叉式五种(参见附图)，科普天文望远镜采用得最多的是德国式与叉式。 五种赤道装置 (a)德国式;(b)英国式;(c)摇篮式;(d)马蹄式(美);(e)叉式(美) 为了在观测时能够较长时间方便地跟踪天体，建议天文爱好者尽量选用赤道式装置的望远镜。 天文望远镜的目镜 当我们了解了天文望远镜的基本光学性能以后，有人可能会只注意了物镜，而忽视了作为望远镜终端设备之一的目镜，其结果常常使再好的望远镜物镜系统也不能充分发挥其应有的本领，只能望天兴叹。 目视望远镜系统必须由物镜系统和目镜系统共同组成，目镜的好坏直接影响目视系统的成像质量，特别在分辨天体的细节时，目镜的质量尤为重要。 天文望远镜目镜的作用为:一，使入射到物镜的平行光从目镜出射时仍为平行光;二，将物镜所成的像放大，这对于观测有视面的天体和近距双星等天体是十分重要的。目镜的种类很多，比较常用的有:惠更斯目镜(用字母H表示，MH或HM表示惠更斯目镜的改进型)，这类目镜适用于低倍率或中倍率的观测;冉斯登目镜(以字母R表示，适于用作装有十字丝或标尺的目镜)，用在低倍率或中倍率的测量性观测;凯涅尔目镜(以字母K表示，是冉斯登目镜的改进型)，消除了冉斯登目镜的色差，这种目镜，视场大，常用在低倍率观测上(如观测彗星或大面积的天体);普罗斯尔目镜(以字母PL表示，由两组消色差胶合透镜组成)，畸变小，视场大，适用于高倍率及投影观测(如对行星或月球表面细节的观测等)，一般配备在较高级的天文望远镜中。 一架天文望远镜应备有多种目镜，才能适应不同目的的观测，也才能最大限度地发挥它应有的作用。曾有这样的情况:某单位从国外订购了一架较好的天文望远镜，只有两个目镜，但 说明 书 关于书的成语关于读书的排比句社区图书漂流公约怎么写关于读书的小报汉书pdf 中介绍它有多种目镜。经询问，卖方说，因买方订货时设写明。这是一个教训。因此，订购天文望远镜(特别是高档望远镜)时，事前一定要做好充分的调查了解，可能的话，请比较内行的人把关，以免造成差错与失误。 天文望远镜的寻星镜和导星镜 天文望远镜的主镜(即物镜与目镜系统)担当观测主角。但是，许多天文观测不是光靠主镜就能全部顺利完成的，它也需要助手，这就是寻星镜与导星镜。 由于天文望远镜主镜的视场一般都比较小，所以要直接在主镜中寻找到观测目标往往非常困难(因为在目标附近常常找不到任何可以参照对比的其他天体)。为了能迅速地搜寻到待观测的天体，常常在主镜旁附设一个低倍率、大视场的小型望远镜，它就是寻星镜。寻星镜一股都采用折射式的望远镜。它的光轴与主镜光轴平行，这样才能保证与主镜的目标一致(天文望远镜出厂时，一般并未校准好此两根光轴的平行，用户需要先用地面目标来校调寻星镜光轴与主镜光轴平行，即先将望远镜主镜对准地面上远处的某一小目标，再校调寻星镜的光轴，使该目标也落在寻星镜的中心 )。寻星镜物镜的口径一般在50,100mm左右，视场在30?,50?左右，放大率在7,20倍左右，焦平面处装有供定标用的分划板。观测时，先用寻星镜找到待观测的天体，将该天体调到寻星镜的视场中央，这时，它也应出现在主镜视场中央部分。 主镜在进行较长时间的观测时，为了及时纠正跟踪中的误差，在主镜旁设置一个起监视作用的望远镜， 它就叫导星镜，导星镜的口径、焦距与放大倍数均要比寻星镜大，视场比寻星镜小(观测前同样需要校调导星镜光轴与主镜光轴平行)。这样，当观测目标偏离主镜中心时，在导星镜中就能反映出来，可以及时将它调回视场中心。有些普及型天文望远镜只有寻星镜与导星镜之中的一个。 天文望远镜的转仪钟 在“天文望远镜的光学系统与机械装置”一文中，我们已经知道望远镜在观测时需要绕着赤经轴(极轴)旋转以跟踪天体的周日运动。为使镜筒自动作跟踪转动，就需要安装相应的驱动装置，该装置的机械电子系统叫转仪钟。本世纪以前的转仪钟，其动力靠链条式的重锤或发条提供，旋转速度靠离心调速器来控制。现在转仪钟的动力靠马达带动，速度由天文钟或无线电振荡器来控制。导星是为了弥补自动跟踪中所不可避免的误差。 对于天文普及工作者或天文爱好者来说，选择天文望远镜最好是要能跟踪天体周日运动的赤道式装置。 天文望远镜的终端设备 应该说没有终端探测器的望远镜还称不上是一个完整的望远镜，望远镜的物镜将无穷远的天体成像在焦平面上，再通过不同的终端探测器来接受所需要的信号。事实上人的眼睛就是一个天然的探测器，在天文观测中除了用人眼外，还使用照相底片、光电光度计、CCD(电荷耦合器件)照相机、光谱仪等终端来接收和记录信息。对于大部分爱好者来讲，主要还是使用照相底片来进行天文观测。当然，目前已有越来越多的的学校和个人开始使用数码相机和非专业级的CCD接收器(如LPI系统等)来观测与进行数据处理， 使得观测与数据处理的水平大大前进了一步。 转载文章请首先阅读有关转载说明 望远镜选购指南(6):天文望远镜的选择、维护与保养 (2005年10月25日 11:30:29) ?作者: [1] 天文望远镜的选择(安装、跟踪方式) 选择天文望远镜时最重要的两条参考依据是价格与使用目的，即根据需要购置天文望远镜的单位及个人可承受的价格以及使用目的来确定所选购望远镜的种类、规格与档次。 本文无法具体讨论价格标准，仅从使用目的的角度进行一些比较。 我们已经知道天文望远镜按光学系统可分为折射式、反射式与折反射式;按机械装置可分为地平式与赤道式;现在要告诉你的是:按使用时的安装方式又可分为固定式及便携式两种，而固定便携两用式兼有以上两种的特点。在选用时，请注意以下的介绍: 一、固定式天文望远镜 固定式天文望远镜一般都装在天文圆顶室或其它观测室内，当安装调试完毕后，一般不再轻易搬动。 1、固定式装置 固定式天文望远镜的装置稳定、可靠，结构比较复杂，有较高精度地调整极轴使之位于子午面(南北平面)并指向北天极、并能牢靠锁定的结构，以保证望远镜极轴稳定地、精确地指向北天极。 固定式装置所采用机械装置形式最为多样，其中德国式、叉式、地平式都被广泛采用，但一般以德国式比较常用。德国式装置的优点是结构稳定、镜筒及接收器的换用较为方便，这些优点在固定式装置中得到充分的发挥。 当然，对于一些反射望远镜及折反射望远镜，特别是口径大于500mm大型望远镜，叉式结构还是很有利的并应用得很广泛的 。 2、固定式望远镜的转仪钟 固定式望远镜的转仪钟一般精度与自动化程度都相当高。它的传动系统必须稳定、可靠，末级蜗轮(或齿轮)的直径一定要与望远镜的口径相当，且一般要求模数较大、精度较高。选择时应充分注意这一点。望远镜一定有自动跟踪系统，并且赤经、赤纬传动一定有慢动及微动。从可靠的角度来考虑，快动采用手动比较有利，但随着计算机技术的普及，应用计算机寻星及演示时，则要求望远镜的快动必须是电动。由于固定式望远镜的驱动装置不必为电源负荷担忧，因此无论是同步电机、直流电机或步进电机驱动系统都被广泛应用。 3、固定式望远镜的光学系统 原则上讲，所有的天文望远镜光学系统都可以用于固定式望远镜中，但是，固定式望远镜的稳定性要求高，对于折射望远镜来讲则优点最多。如: (1)光轴稳定。折射镜镜头装在1个稳定的镜框内，长时间使用不会变动。 (2)透光性不易改变，使用寿命特别长。 (3)维护、装修比较简单。 (4)比较壮观。通俗地讲就足看起来像个大型望远镜。 (5)同等口径下，因为其没有中间反射的元件而通光量大于反射或折反射望远镜。 但是，同等口径条件下，折射镜的价格将是最高的，因为镜筒长，其它的所有构件都要加大，成本就高。此外，镜简长，观测室就得大，增加建设费用。 此外，普通单位采用的折射望远镜的口径不宜太大，一般不超过200mm。6m的圆顶室内可容纳的折射望远镜的最大口径约为250mm。若要求更大口径，建议采用反射望远镜或折反射望远镜。 二、便携式天文望远镜 绝大部分天文爱好者都希望拥有一台轻便结实、性能优良、拆装调方便、而且价格不太高的便携式天文望远镜。由于城市内光污染严重，要想得到一张高质量的天文照片，必须携带仪器到农村或山上去(当然有条件者在光污染少的地区建立天文台，安装较大的望远镜又当别论)。 星迹、黄道光等的拍摄，需要有一座稳固的且携带方便的照相机或摄像机三角架，一般购买国产的三角架即可，使用任何品牌的135相机或120相机均可，照相机焦距一般选用28,80mm。 1、便携式装置 便携式装置一般采用德国式或叉式两种，脚架采用伸缩式或拆装式，一般以伸缩式较为方便。由于便携式要求轻便而不失稳定，三角架一般用铝合金制成。为实现稳定，三角架的截面要宽大，但管壁则不必太厚，三角架的横撑对稳定度起着重要的作用。 (1)德国式装置不仅广泛用于小型折射望远镜中，同时也应用于折反射和反射望远镜中。由于相对口径较小的折射望远镜在同样口径的各类望远镜中焦距最长，因而它作为便携式望远镜中一般口径不能太大，相对口径在1/12左右的折射镜一般口径不宜超过100mm，否则就过于笨重;而对于反射或折反射望远镜则当别论，拿短镜筒的折反射望远镜来说，甚至可 将便携式望远镜的口径做到300mm(当然，300mm口径的便携式望远镜一般都须有两人以上拆装)。德国式装置对于业余观测者来讲，最大的好处在于可以根据拍摄天体对象的不同，“随心所欲”地更换不同的镜筒和接收器。 (2)叉式装置一般仅用于折反射望远镜。由于这种装置没有笨重的平衡锤，因此在同等口径的望远镜中自重较轻，再加上赤纬系统有两个固定点，赤经传动系统的末级也可做得较大而十分稳定，精度也比较容易做得高，因此叉式装置在便携式望远镜中十分重要，为很多业余观测者所青睐。 不过，叉式结构最大的缺点是不能任意调换镜筒及接收器，平衡问题较难解决。 2(便携式望远镜的转仪钟 便携式望远镜的转仪钟设计中一般须考虑重量与精度的匹配，有时为了减轻重量而不得不降低一些精度。一般来讲，便携式望远镜的跟踪精度不及固定式的高，末级蜗轮(或齿轮)也小于固定式。便携式望远镜的如要长时间曝光拍摄，需靠不停地导星来提高拍摄精度。 对于电机选用，小功率的直流电机、步进电机及同步电机都在可选范围。由于便携式望远镜经常要在没有市电供应的地方观测，电池或蓄电池供电的将作为首选。 便携式望远镜的转仪钟一般仅有“恒动”(即与天体周日运动同步的跟踪转动)为电动，其余快、慢、微动均为手动，但具备慢、微电动的转仪钟，将会对拍摄时的导星带来很多方便之处。近来，单片机控制的小型转仪钟控制器已问世，这对于寻星及导星带来很大的方便。例如美国Meade LX200 GPS-SMT望远镜(固定与便携两用式)，与全球定位系统(GPS)联网，实现定位、校准、寻星、跟踪的全自动控制，将望远镜的控制提高到世界顶级水平(详见 “相关文章”中“美国Meade LX200 GPS-SMT望远镜简介”一文)。 天文望远镜的维护与保养 天文望远镜是精密仪器，维护的好坏直接影响到望远镜的使用和寿命，故必须要专人使用、专人保管，非专业人士不要轻易拆卸与修理。 1、光学系统的维护 (1) 保证望远镜放置在通风、干燥、洁净的地方;所有的目镜、棱镜、二次成像镜及其它小的光学零附件，不使用时应放入带干燥剂的干燥箱或干燥缸内，同时要时常注意更换新的干燥剂。在雨雪天、风沙、湿度大(超过85%)的天气均不要使用望远镜，也不要打开物镜盖，特别是对于无密封窗的反射望远镜，灰沙是最大的敌害。在南方的霉雨季节可将镜筒两头用不透气的塑料袋扎紧，内部放置袋装的干燥剂(不要接触镜头)，并注意经常替换新的干燥剂，以保持物镜的干燥。 (2) 光学镜面上如有灰尘等脏物，应用吹耳球轻轻吹去，不能用嘴吹，以免唾沫溅到镜面上;也千万不要用布和硬毛刷去擦拭，以免损坏镀膜层与镜面;光学镜面上千万不要用手去摸，留下的指印往往会腐蚀镜面而造成永久性痕迹。若一旦不慎留下指印须尽快清擦，应当用无水乙醇和乙醚各50,的混合液滴在干净的脱脂纱布上，从镜面中心按顺时针或逆时针方向轻轻地向镜面边缘转擦(只能向一个方向轻擦，不能来回擦)，并不断更换脱脂棉球，直到擦净为止。望远镜镜面除平时注意保护外，应不定期的进行清洁，对透镜切勿使用有机溶剂，以免损坏增透膜;对镀铝反射镜面，尽量不要擦拭，以免铝膜受损或脱落。 (,)便携式望远镜尽量不要在雾气很重的森林边、水边及海边观测，若迫不得已必须观测的话，观测完后应尽快按上述方法擦拭一遍。 (4)反射望远镜的反射镜面应定期(一般情况下1,3年)进行镀膜，以保证反射镜面具有良好的反射率。 大型与高档望远镜的维护与保养最好请天文单位的专业人员协助进行。 2、转仪钟的维护 (,)望远镜的机械及跟踪系统是属于高精度的传动系统，但由于其转速较慢，一般不需要经常维护，只是要按照说明书的要求，不要过载使用并定期加入同样型号的润滑油(脂);若润滑油(脂)的型号不同，请将原来的润滑油(脂)用煤油等清洗干净后再加入新的润滑油(脂)，注意千万不要将不同类型的润滑油(脂)混合使用。有条件的单位或个人，如能在使用几年后，请专业人员重新清洗、加油、调整，将是十分有益的。 (,)望远镜的控制系统应不定期的进行检查，使用时应严格按照说明书的要求操作，平时应防止水滴、水汽、异物进入电路部分，电池长期不用应取出保存好。 3、电控系统的维护 望远镜的电控系统因型号、功能的不同而差别甚大，但使用维护的注意点基本相同: (1)检查输入的交流电压是否和望远镜的额定电压相同，使用直流电源时也应注意电池组或蓄电池的额定电压是否与望远镜电控要求一致。 (2)在大功率驱动电路中，请注意大功率管的散热片不要相碰短路，以免烧坏管子。 (3)所有电源或电控线不要硬拉和随意交叉，以免断路。 望远镜对于每个户外爱好者来讲都是重要的不可或缺的工具。但很多游友对望远镜的性能和如何挑选望远镜并没有太多的知识，导致买到的望远镜没有太多的用途或者效果不尽如人意。在此，我给大家介绍一下望远镜原理。 一)双筒望远镜种类(Porro Prism vs Roof Prism) 双筒望远镜可分为两大类:普罗棱镜(Porro Prism)及屋脊棱镜(Roof Prism)。普罗型构造简单，透光率较同级屋脊型高，由于物镜距离较宽，影像较富立体感;亦由于工艺要求较低，售价一般较便宜。屋脊型相对结构比较复杂，需要精度较高，不易研制，成本及售价均较高;两组棱镜成一直线使其体积较细，手感较佳，密封性能较好，最近对焦亦较普罗型为短。 望远镜通常可以分成以下四型: 手持式双筒望远镜 ; 单筒式赏鸟镜; 巨型双筒望远镜; 单筒天文望远镜; 不迷信广告或者指标，请用眼睛去比较和选择。 (二)光学性能 倍率(宜介乎于8倍至10倍) 望远镜上均标示着10 x 42，8 x 30等字样，前者代表倍率，后者代表物镜直径。使用10倍的望远镜看一只站于100公尺的鸟，就如用肉眼在10公尺看一样近。由于倍率逾大，视角愈小，搜寻目标较为困难，亦较易因双手颤抖而影响清晰度。光线非常充足时，10倍较8倍清楚;光线不足时，8倍反而比10倍更能看到细节，故不应盲目追求高倍率( 口径(宜介乎30mm至42mm) 口径愈大愈好，物镜直径影响进光量。尤其在明暗对比强烈、晨昏、多云的情况下，口径愈大，进光量愈高，眼睛便可看到更多的细节;但同时望远镜便愈重，长时间观望较易造成疲倦。宜按个人体能选择较大口径。 视野(愈大愈好) 视野指的是在1000米起时可以看到的范围，视野宽度宜高于104米即6度。视野愈大，搜寻目标愈快愈易。但视野愈大时，边缘扭曲变形及模糊的情况愈严重，像差的修正会愈复杂困难，所需技术及成本亦愈高。 色彩保真度(愈自然愈好) 高质素望远镜须忠实反映景物原色及色泽饱和度。有些生产厂商为增加望远镜的亮度，刻意增减某段光波，导致失真现象，使景物偏蓝或偏红。 透光率和镀膜的关系密不可分，并直接影响色彩保真度。全部的光学玻璃高透光率和全表面多层镀膜，亮度比较高，颜色还原准确。一般厂商不会全部公布所有数据(很难做到)，有些厂商会公布局部光学玻璃的透光率或镀膜，以此误导消费者。 最好的办法是用自己的眼睛去作观测比较。 (三)使用性能 1) 景深 对观鸟的人来说，景深是个比较矛盾的参数，景深大，则不需要频繁调焦，用起来比较方便，但对于观察林鸟来说，前景和背景不容易虚化，鸟儿不容易突出。而景深小，虽然观察林鸟时前景和背景虚化明显，鸟儿主题突出，但距离一变就要重新调焦，手指要始终搭在调焦轮上，比较累。这个要看个人喜好了，没有什么固定标准。 2) 密封性 望远往往都在户外进行，观察环境多变，最好选能防浸水(水压防水)的望远镜，这样才能使镜子内部保持密封和稳定，不起雾不长霉。 3) 舒适性 舒适性因人而异。一般来说，对于表面包胶的望远镜，不但防震效果好，而且握持起来也更舒适;镜身重量决定了长时间使用和携带是否方便;通常，大家会选择耐用性能高的望远镜。 4) 品牌选择 最好的望远镜除了光学质量、制造工艺和使用性能外，更多的是眼睛与心灵的感受。德国蔡司望远镜、徕卡望远镜与奥地利施华洛世奇(SWAROVSKI)望远镜并称镜中之王，三者光学质量与价格相差无几，其价格也是镜中之王，但基于优秀顶级产品物有所值。此外，德国视得乐望远镜也是非常好的，但全金属镜身少，价格在国内市场太高。原装尼康、佳能、富士、美能达、宾得、奥林巴斯等品牌都还不错，但本土以外生产的望远镜就不行，在中国市场的产品多数是浙江、云南、广东一带EOM的产品，产品质量一般般。国产军用品和高档出口外贸品性价比最好。国产95式、62式、战神都是不错的产品。 俄罗斯望远镜全金属镜身，古典造型深受广大军事迷和光学爱好者喜爱。但由于没有正规进货渠道、没有正常的售后服务，次品、等外品也涌入市场( 选择望远镜，应跟据自己的需要量力而行，同时，不要迷信广告或者部分局部的指标，要用眼睛和用心去比较。 关于望远镜 (2008年03月19日 22:54:10) 来源:《飞碟探索》 ?作者: 覃 月 [1] 本来想写一个望远镜FAQ，由于先写了与望远镜倍数相关的话题，所以先拿出来发表。 未经过仔细斟酌，错误问题在所难免，请指正: ?什么是望远镜的放大倍数? 就是用肉眼观察一个物体的张角与用望远镜在同一个地点观察相同物体的角度放大倍数。例如，肉眼看一只鸟为6角分，而用一个望远镜观察为60角分，则该望远镜的放大倍数为10倍。 ?放大倍数是如何计算的? 放大倍数=物镜焦距,目镜焦距 如果望远镜没有标明物镜焦距，可以实际测量一下。例如，量出太阳成像的直径，并根据太阳每米焦距成像直径为8.7毫米计算即可。另外，物镜焦距一般能够从镜筒的长度估计出来。对于一些结构特殊的望远镜，光路有可能经过内部棱镜或平面镜折射缩短实际镜筒的长度，屋脊形折射甚至在外面不易观察出来。还有，长焦的摄影镜头由于采用了特殊结构，尽管没有反射，也可以使得镜筒的长度远小于焦距。 ?是不是放大倍数越大越好呢? 不是的。望远镜的放大倍数要适中才好，主要有如下限制: 双筒望远镜一般用手持，超过10倍左右晃动厉害，不利于观察，眼睛容易疲劳，甚至引起恶心。指定望远镜倍数太大也会因为风吹草动引起震动。12倍为手持极限，而且观察时最好肘部有依托，身体或望远镜依附某些固定物体。 一般来讲，倍数越大，可同时观察的区域就越小。这不仅仅是因为目镜的原因，即便目镜在焦距变化时能够保持视角不变(例如600)，也会因观察区域的减小使得视野与放大倍数成反比变小。这样，就不利于发现和寻找目标，对于经常变换目标的观察、观测尤其不利。即便是找好了目标，架子稍有晃动就容易失去目标。对于没有自动跟踪装置的，要经常手动调节才能使目标保持在视野之内。 例如口径50毫米，7倍时亮度(指数)为50，10倍为25，15倍为11，25倍为4，而物体的亮度的减小会直接影响人眼的观察效果(人眼的分辨能力、色彩能力均随着亮度的减小而变得越来越差)。一般来讲，白天亮度小于5、夜间亮度小于20时，观察暗弱物体就很难。大口径的望远镜在这一点上就具备优势，例如，口径300毫米的反射镜，放大50倍时，亮度仍为36(非常亮)。另外，观察太阳系亮天体时，由于亮度高，基本不受此限制。 目镜焦距短，会造成镜目距离(即出瞳距离)小、视角度小等遗憾，造成观察不舒服、不适合戴眼镜者等问题。 大气有个宁静度，好者可以达到1角秒以下。尽管这样，对于人眼最小1角分的分辨能力，放大倍数超过100就会受影响，例如看月面会产生“蒸汽”上升的抖动效果，角度越低现象越严重。如果观察时大气宁静度很好，就可以相应选择更高一点的放大倍数。 理论上，望远镜的分辨能力有个极限，为140,口径毫米数，单位是角秒(是以观察人眼最敏感的黄绿光为基础计算的)。再好的望远镜也超不出这个极限，只能是接近。望远镜的功能之一是观察细节，倍数选择太大以后。由于这个理论极限，再放大已经不会有更多的细节出现，因此也失去意义了。但放大倍数到底选择多大，不仅与望远镜的理论分辨能力有关。而且还与当时的观测条件，尤其是与观测者本身的眼力有关。选择倍数是物镜口径的毫米数乘1.5的说法(也有乘2的说法)，是对于普通条件下的一种参考值。眼力不好、望远镜质量好就可以把倍数选择大点;相反，眼力很好(或观测时不想看到太多的不理想成像)、望 远镜质量一般，就可以把倍数选择的低一点。例如，口径80厘米的折射镜，最大可以选择120倍,160倍。 ?口径50毫米的双筒望远镜，如何选择倍数来购买呢? 口径50毫米的双筒望远镜是一个在价格、性能、可携带性等平衡得很好的尺寸，值得初学者选择。 若主要手持，倍数应选择10倍左右。我以前有个16倍的，手持不稳，因此已经送人。 若能够放在三脚架上，且观测目标主要为太阳系天体(如月亮、木星等)，倍数可以选择得大一点，如16倍,20倍，但一定要慎重。 若以暗弱天体为观察对象同时兼顾夜间观察，可选低倍数的，如7倍,8倍。 如果多用途，可以选10倍，即10×50的最为通用:出瞳为5，亮度不错，手持正好(我自己日前常用7×35和12×60两架，出瞳均为5毫米)。 ?双筒望远镜能否选择变倍的? 可以选择，但最好可变倍数不要太大。 变倍望远镜很方便、适合多种用途，是牺牲如下指标为代价的: 1、价格稍高 2、结构复杂，容易损坏 3、视角一般偏小 4、镜片多，分辨能力稍差 5、逆光表现不如固定倍数的，反差会低一些 ?口径80毫米的折射望远镜，应该选择多大的放大倍数呢(即配什么目镜呢)? 80毫米折射望远镜，也是一款在价格、性能、可携带性等平衡得很好的种类，值得初学者选择。 假如夫镜焦距800毫米(f,10)，则根据公式，选择目镜焦距为32毫米、20毫米、12.5毫米、8毫米时，放大倍数分别为25、40、 64、100，出瞳分别为:3.2毫米、2毫米、1.3毫米、0.8毫米，亮度分别为10、4、1.6、0.6。其中，30毫米或更大焦距的目镜适合观察深空天体和彗星，而10毫水左右的目镜适合太阳系内天体、双星等观测。 ?是否可以选配巴洛夫镜来提高放大倍数? 巴洛夫镜不仅可以提高最大放大倍数，便于仔细观察亮物体;还可以在较高的倍数下仍然采用同一个目镜(而不是采用短焦距的目镜，其出瞳距离和视角很可能比较小)来提高观察的舒适程度。如果你也这样想，买巴洛夫镜还是有用的。缺点是，引入了不稳定的因素，成像会受一定影响。 如何选购你的第一台望远镜 (2008年11月02日 20:57:03) 来源:《飞碟探索》 ?作者: 姜晓军 [1] 要观测大多数有趣的天象，天文望远镜是必备的工具。但是目前市场上望远镜的种类繁多，质量参差不齐，希望本文能够为天文爱好者选购自己的第一台天文望远镜提供一些帮助。 一台完整的天文望远镜应该至少包括物镜、镜简、调焦器、目镜和支架等几个部分。物镜是望远镜中最为关键的部件，它的口径决定了望远镜的聚光能力。口径越大就越能看到越 暗淡的天体;镜筒是安放物镜和调焦器的圆筒，还起到遮挡杂散光的作用，好的镜筒应当坚固且轻便，并在内部进行消光处理;调焦器一端连镜筒，另一端连目镜，一般通过齿轮一齿条机构做精细的前后运动来对望远镜进行调焦。高质量的调焦器应运动平顺，并且有锁定焦点的顶丝;目镜决定望远镜目视观测的放大率和视场，望远镜的放大率等于物镜的焦距除以目镜的焦距。望远镜的视场等于目镜的表观视场除以放大率。 天文望远镜由于较大较重，放大率又较高，所以需要一个稳固的支架才能够充分发挥其光学性能。常用的望远镜支架有两种。一是地平式支架，望远镜通过绕方位和俯仰两个相互垂直的轴的旋转来指向天上的任意位置。地平式支架的好处是结构简单，易于使用，价格也便宜。 另一种支架是赤道仪，它上面也有两个相垂直的轴，称为极轴和纬轴。在使用时将极轴指向北天极，再转动极轴和纬轴就能将望远镜指向天空任意位置。赤道仪结构较为复杂。因此价格一般较贵，操作也比地平式支架复杂一些。赤道仪的优势在于追踪天体的周日视运动时只需极轴转，而望远镜的焦面不转，方便高倍率观测和天体摄影。 适合天文爱好者使用的望远镜主要有三种。 折射望远镜:物镜为凸透镜，位于镜筒的前端，来自天体的光线经物镜折射后成像在焦面上，故称为折射望远镜。现在几乎所有的折射式望远镜物镜都是消色差结构的，这种物镜由不同玻璃材质的一块凸透镜和一块凹透镜组成，可以部分消除由于玻璃对不同颜色光线的折射率不同而带来的色差。但是要完全消除肉眼可见的光谱范围内的残余色差，需要使用昂贵的超低色散玻璃。这种望远镜称为复消色差折射望远镜，它的成像质量是完美的，但是价格过分昂贵，不在适合初学者选用的望远镜之列。好在普通的消色差折射镜也完全能够满足一般天文观测的需要，而且具有易于使用和维护的优点。 牛顿式反射望远镜:物镜是一个凹的反射镜，位于镜筒的后部，光从镜筒的前端进入镜筒，被反射镜反射后聚焦在镜筒的前端附近。为了便于安放目镜，在光线聚焦前由一片小的平面镜(称为副镜)将汇聚光反射在镜筒的外侧。调焦器和目镜便安放在镜筒前端的外侧。它的最大优点在于相同口径时比折射望远镜便宜，而且因光线不进入玻璃的内部也没有色差;缺点是副镜的挡光会降低成像的反差，目镜在镜筒的前端使用也不够方便，长途运输时的震动还会改变主镜和副镜光轴的相对位置，需要经常调整。 折反射望远镜:它的前端是一片改正透镜，光线经主镜和副镜的两次反射后在镜筒的后端成像。在相同的焦距下，折反射望远镜的镜筒是三种望远镜中最短的。因此非常便携。折反射望远镜的价格介于折射望远镜和反射望远镜之间，成像质量虽然不及高级的折射镜，但完全可胜任一般的天文观测。由于镜筒结构紧凑，重量轻，对支架的要求也较低。 了解了望远镜的结构和类型，就可以选择适合自己要求的望远镜了，下面还有几条建议: 1 望远镜的放大率配置要合理:要充分发挥天文望远镜的威力，就要为它配备不同焦距的几只目镜。低倍率时望远镜有较大的视场，而高倍率时能够看到更暗的天体和更微小的细节。但是，为了充分利用物镜汇聚的光线，望远镜的最低倍率不应低于口径厘米数的1.4倍，否则就会有一部分光线无法进入使用者的瞳孔;同样，望远镜的最高放大率也是有限制的，否则会带来成像暗淡模糊、视场狭小等问题。望远镜的最高放大率与望远镜的口径、光学质量、大气的稳定程度等都有关系，对于普通的望远镜和一般的观测条件，建议最高放大率不要超过口径厘米数的15倍。 2 支架要稳固:我曾试用过多台价格在两三百元的普及型望远镜，感觉光学质量还行，但是支架不稳定严重影响到使用。尤其在使用较高放大率的目镜时，由于视场狭小，很多时候无法将要观测的天体放入视场。此外，最好还能够有微动机构，以方便找星。 3 调焦器的接口要标准:目前种类最多的天文目镜和附件的接口直径是31.7毫米，有些摄影附件和低倍广角目镜的接口直径为50.8毫米。为了能够充分发挥望远镜的潜力，最 好选择调焦器直径等于或大于50.8毫米的望远镜。这样使用转接环就可以用上各种目镜和附件了。有一些目镜的接口直径是 24.5毫米，但现在这类接口的目镜和附件已经越来越少了，而且很难通过转接装置使用较大的目镜和附件。因此应该尽量避免选择24.5毫米接口的望远镜。 现在时间: 2010年06月06日 11:50:01 望远镜基础知识——双筒望远镜 (2007年06月12日 20:44:05) 来源:北大青年天文学会 ?作者: [1] 双筒望远镜是一样很有用的天文观察工具。你可以用它来观看一场球赛、演唱会或是天上的飞鸟。你也可以用它来欣赏两百万光年之遥的银河、月 球上的坑洞、围绕木星的几个卫星及无数星星。 许多人都错以为双筒望远镜在天文观察上没有作为。事实上，它是很多资深的天文观测者喜爱的工具。对初学者，它是进入天文观测之门的门票。双筒望远镜并不贵，你只须花个数百块钱就可以买到一副不错的双筒望远镜了。 基本知识 购买双筒望远镜前，你应该先了解它的特性及规格。选购天文用的双筒望远镜最要注重的是「口径」。口径是指望远镜镜头(front lenses)的直径。口径越大成像会越亮。天文用的双筒望远镜，镜头直径应该至少要40mm。小巧的20mm到30mm双筒望远镜用于白天看风景很恰当，但因不能聚集足够的光线所以并不适用很简单。 每副双筒望远镜都标有一组数字如7x50之类。双 筒望远镜规格上的第一个数字"7" 就是指镜头直 径。七倍的机型是一种畅销机型，会让观看的每一 样物品拉近七倍。你还可以选购10x、16x，可能你 认为天文用途上高倍率是必要的，其实不然。一付 双筒望远镜就够好了，而且接下来我们还会论及7x 所拥有的优点超过大部份的高倍率机型。 视野(Field of View) 几乎每一付双筒望远镜小手册上你都会看到一组数据像"367 feet @ 1000 yards" 或"120 m @ 1000 m"等等。这串数字代表透过目镜看1,000码(或1,000公尺远的风景，你视野上能看见的有多宽。这是度量视野大小的方法 之一。用"几呎这种方法来度量天空的视野并不适切。天文学家取而代之用度数来度量视野。一度相当两倍满月的直径。>七度等 于十四个满月的的直径，而且又是双筒望远镜典型的视野度数。高倍机型看到的天空较小(3到5度)，广角机型就看得大(8到10度) ，只要将"feet @ 1000 yards" 规格上的呎(feet) 这个数据除以52.5就能换算成度数了。"meters @ 1000 meters" 规格 就用公尺(meters) 数除以17。举例来说，一付视野为367 feet @ 1000 yards 的双筒望远镜就有367/52. 5 度的视野，约 7度。广角机型周边视野星点的成像通常会有点歪曲、模糊，减损了视域，这点很难平衡。此外，广角机型一般来讲良视距会缩短。 实际视野和有效视(actual and apparent fields of view) 间是有关联的。取有效视野(比方说，70度)并且除以倍率(比方 说，10x) 然后你就会得到「实际视野」的值，在这个例子是7度。所以有效视野提高了，实际视野会跟着提高 。但是提高倍率实际视野会往下降。 射出瞳孔(exit pupil) 在许多双筒望远镜小手册你也会上发现一个规格叫「射出瞳孔」(exit pupil)的。它是光线从目镜里射 出来的宽度。你可以用口径(单位除以倍率来算射出瞳。举例来说7x50 型就有50/7 (7mm) 的射出瞳孔。所有机型射出瞳孔都是 7mm。所有7x42机种射出瞳孔都是6mm，依此类推。你会发现很多被推荐用于天文的双筒望远射出瞳孔，这是很有道理的。当你的 双眼习惯于夜里的黑暗时，瞳孔会张大让更多光线进去。人类瞳孔顶多能扩大到7mm。所以只要双筒望远镜射出7mm光锥进入你的 眼睛，让双眼集光力得以发挥最大效用时你就很可能看到最亮的成像。所有设计用来应付低光度环境的双筒望远镜都有7mm射出 瞳孔。包括:7x50、8x56、9x63、10x70 及11x80 等机型。通常都最适用于天文观测。但是，当你老了，你的眼睛瞳孔就张不 了那么开了。三十岁出头的人的最大瞳孔约6mm。超过四十岁，就掉到约4.5mm至5mm 之间。假如你的瞳孔大小上限只到5mm或 6mm，使用射出光锥7mm宽的双筒望远镜就会浪费掉一些入射光。部份光线进不了你的眼睛，双筒望远镜的集光力便无法全部发挥 出来。年纪大一点的人，双筒望远镜的射出瞳5mm或6mm是较好的选择。这些机型包括畅销的7x42 及10x50。 良视距 (Eye Relief) 厂商现在越来越重视「良视距」这种规格了。该规格是指你的眼睛须要多靠近接目镜才能清楚看见整个视野的距离。良视距的数据对近视的眼镜族而言更形重要。虽然近视眼的人可以取下眼镜，利用调整双筒望远镜上的焦距来进行补偿，但是却相当不方便---戴上眼镜用清晰的视线看夜空，在不偏移目标的情况下迅速将双筒望远镜凑到眼前，然后还能保持完整的视野，的确是乐事一件。此外，假如你一眼或两眼有几级的散光,你的眼镜就不能摘下来了。戴眼镜欲看清完整的视眼至少须要 14mm到 15mm 的良视距，良视距由退下的眼杯处起开始量。良视距小于 8mm 或 9mm 的机型可能会难于观察，即使没戴眼镜也一样。你得将眼睛贴近接目镜才能看清所有视野，长时间看下来会造成压迫感，而且睫毛上的油脂和灰尘保证会沾染到接目镜。 棱镜 (Prisms) 双筒望远镜机体里包含了一组合成棱镜，能折射光路让成像正立。双筒望远镜可区分成两个阵营--- Porro 棱镜系及 Roof 棱镜系。Porro 棱镜系有,字或,字型外观。Roof 棱镜系则是直筒型。 Porro 棱镜机型一般比 Roof 棱镜机型要来得便宜。Roof 棱镜要做得好，加工及固定上一定要求较精密的容许误差，制作成本高。但是 Roof 棱镜机型 (结构上) 则倾向 较为密实。 天文用途上多采用 Porro 棱镜机型。Porro 棱镜系常常成像会稍稍鲜明一点。不过若是当你用廉价机型 (译按: 指 Roof 棱镜系) 来瞄准亮星或行星时，星体会放射出恼人的钉状光芒。这些钉状绕射导因于 Roof 棱镜会将影像劈成两半，然后再组合起来。但在高级 Roof 棱镜机型上你绝对不会发现这种效应的。 Porro 棱镜系双筒望远镜的棱镜若是采用冕牌钡化玻璃 (barium crown glass 缩写为BaK4) 作为材质者，视野会较完整。棱镜若采硅酸硼玻璃(borosilicate glass) 作为材质者，等级较低，但实务上成像的亮度差异很小。 Porro 棱镜机型 Roof 棱镜机型 镀膜 (Coatings) 大部份双筒望远镜光学镜片都至少镀了一层氟化镁。会让镜片发出浅蓝色调。镀膜可以提高光线的穿透率并减少内面反射 (internal reflections) 及镜面闪光 (lens flares)，能将亮度及对比往上推。廉价机型通常只有靠外侧镜面有镀膜。虽然该机型会有一定的水准，但是你会在发现昂贵的机型才会有最好的品质。无论如何，多少还会产生内面反射并损失一些对比。这些最低程度的镀膜机型，会让入射光线到达你的眼睛之前折损四十个百分比之多。较高级双筒望远镜会在大部份的镜片表面镀上普通镀膜，而且只有一面或更多面采取多层镀膜 (通常镀在外侧与空气接触的镜片表面)。最好的双筒望远镜里，所有的镜片含棱镜都会镀上多层膜。这些等级的机型光线的折损会降到很小的五个百分比。多层镀膜镜片看起来会比较暗，颜色呈现绿色或暗紫红色。 近年巿面出现了一些镀上一层红色反光膜的双筒望远镜，不诚实的商店还说这是红外线型号，特别适合晚间使用。事实上，那层红色镀膜把大量的光反射出望远镜外，令到达眼睛的光线大大减少。所以大家不要选购这种型号望远镜。 结构特征 (Mechanical Features) 大部份的双筒望远镜都会有一个中央调焦装置可同时移动两个对目镜。这些机型是最便于操作的。有一些双筒望远镜两个对目镜分别有一个调焦环。这些「独立焦点」机型机身封固较密实可对抗湿气，但是对焦较不便利。话又说回来，当你看星星时每一个目标都是无限远，焦距也不须常常去调。双筒望远镜在夜晚使用时锁在三脚架上是很有利的。很多双筒望远镜机身上都附有螺纹孔，用以连接一般相合的三脚架转接器。假如双筒望远镜上缺少一个螺纹孔，也许改用一种可夹在两支镜筒间中心连杆上的转接器或一个包覆套子将机身整个套住就可以了。专为海事设计的双筒望远镜常常是防水的。这些机型是密闭式结构，并且将内部的普通空气抽出后再充氮。防水功能并非必要，但在天文上却有其一席之地---我们将双筒望远镜曝露在湿冷的夜间气候中，然后又携回温暖的房子里，产生的水气就更多了。经过误用以 后，湿气跟霉菌都会聚集在双筒望远镜里头，光学镜片糊成一片,修理费用代价就高了。 观星首选机型 40mm 到 63mm (标准规格型) 范围之间的双筒望远镜都是手持型，有利于「突击式」扫瞄星空用。70mm 或更大的大型双筒望远镜使用起来需要相当的力气 (你可以架在三脚架上或双筒望远镜专用椅上)。 标准规格机种 (40mm 到 63mm) 7,50机型 一直被认为是天文用最佳全能双筒望远镜，射出瞳孔达到7mm。视野一般有 7 到 10度, 很适合手持。应用在日间也不错，虽然大小有点超出日间用之所需。由于 7x50 机型在海事需求上最受欢迎，很多 7x50 会有防水功能和高级的光学设计。1,,,,。本机型比起 7x50 星空背景看起来会稍稍暗一些 (射出瞳孔只有5mm的缘故)，但是用来看月表及星团时会好一些。多出的倍率对暗星体的观测也有助益。尽管倍率较高，许多 10x50 机型展现出来的星空范围跟比起 7x50 却不相上下 (大约5到7度)。 10x50机型 这机型的缺点是手持不易，也许会削弱你所搜寻的目标成像的清晰度。10x 双筒望远镜应该要用三脚架。而高倍率机型的良视距也较短，会造成戴眼镜进行观测时的不便。 7,42、8,40 或 8,42机型 假如你年过四十，7x42、8x40 或 8x42 机型提供的 5mm 到 6mm 射出瞳是很好的选择。这种规格的双筒望远镜比 7x50 机型重量要来得轻，而且也适用于日间的赏景及大自然观测。某些机型能够对几呎之遥的近距离目标聚焦，用来赏鸟很理想。如果你想要一付全功能双筒望远镜，这种机型是可以胜任的。 8,56 和 9,63机型 本机型是便利的 40mm 到 50mm 机型与大型的70mm 到 80mm 机型之间的一种妥协。特别对有些不喜欢将普通日间用途双筒望远镜当夜间望远镜用的人来讲。很少有厂商供应这种机型，品质好的价钱都蛮贵的，要选就选镜片大一点的和限量生产的制品。 10,40 和 10,42机型 本机型射出瞳 4mm，肯定可以用于天文观测，不过主要还是设计给赏鸟者中许多寻求日间环境下使用的高倍率机型。假如这是你的主要目标，观星放在其次，10x40 是蛮好的选择，Roof 棱镜高级机型又特别值得推荐。 能看什么呢? 透过双筒望远镜，你可以看许多遥远的星团、星云，甚至几个较明亮却的星系。你还可以看木星的卫星，观察它们每夜的位移。你可以观测金星盈亏及月相。其它还有新月时地照、天王星、海王星、薄幕时低沉的水星、小行星、月蚀、日全食及彗星等。双筒望远镜看不到什么呢? 月表细节、行星表面你看不到。假如你要看木星云层、土星环，你就需要一支单筒天文望远镜了。 (英文版 ) Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthen party laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Years, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulations repeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs Department The first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee Political Bureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revision of the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Yan to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline and to implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists on a positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," a total of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule > real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen years implement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses. Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Yan Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline, exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility should be depending on the specific circumstances shall be given a warning until expelled punishment. This situation and a difference is that the former regulation behavior has been suspected of a crime, the feeling is quite strict, and the latter for the behavior not involving crime, only the objective performance of the provisions of the criminal code of behavior, but the plot is a crime to slightly. < Regulations > the 29 provisions, Party organizations in the discipline review found that party members and other illegal behavior, affect the party's image, the damage to the party, the state and the people's interests, we should depend on the situation Seriousness given disciplinary action. The loss of Party members, seriously damaging the party's image of behavior, should be given expelled from the party. At this article is party member is in violation of the criminal law outside the other illegal acts, such as violates the public security administration punishment law, customs law, financial laws and regulations behavior. The fourth is < cases > Article 32 stipulates, minor party members and the circumstances of the crime, the people's Procuratorate shall make a decision not to initiate a prosecution, or the people's court shall make a conviction and exempted from criminal punishment shall be given within the party is removed from his post, probation or expelled from the party. Party members and crime, sheets were fined in accordance with For acts; the principal Ordinance amended the provisions of the preceding paragraph. This is the new content, in order to achieve Ji method effective convergence. Five is < > the thirty third article 10 of the provisions, the Party member due to an intentional crime is sentenced to criminal law (including probation) sheets or additional deprivation of political rights; due to negligence crime and was sentenced to three years or more (excluding three years) a penalty, shall give expelled punishment. Due to negligence crime is convicted and sentenced to three years (including three years) in prison or be sentenced to public surveillance, detention, shall in general be expelled from the party. For the individual may not be expelled from the party, should control Approval. This is followed and retained the original > < Regulations the provisions of punishment party authorization rules and report to a level party organizations. For is "party members with criminal acts, and by the criminal punishment, generally should be expelled from the party". The fifth chapter of probationary Party member of the discipline and discipline after missing members of the treatment and punishment decisions, such as the implementation of the provisions, clear the related party discipline and punishment decision made after, for duties, wages and other relevant alteration formalities for the longest time. 2, sub sub section will the original regulations of 10 categories of acts of violation of discipline integration revised into 6 categories, respectively, in violation of the punishments for acts of political discipline "in violation of discipline behavior of punishment" in violation of integrity of disciplinary action points "of violation punishments for acts of mass discipline" "the violation of work discipline, punishment" in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment "6 chapters. 3, annex" Supplementary Provisions "clear authority making supplementary provisions of, cases of interpretative organ, as well as regulations implementation time and retroactivity etc.. 11 (3) learning understanding > < regulations needs to grasp several key problems The first problem -- about the violation of political discipline behavior > < new ordinance chapter 6 the political discipline column for the six disciplines, that is the main opposition to Party leadership and the opposition of the basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, basic requirements of misconduct made provisions of the disposition, especially the eighteen since the CPC Central Committee put forward the Yan Mingzheng treatment of discipline and political rules requirements and practical achievements transformation for Discipline article, increase the false debate central policies, cliques, against the organization review, make no discipline of the principle of harmony terms. These are the party's eighteen years in comprehensive strictly Process combined with the practice of rich content. (1) false debate the central policies and undermine the Party of centralized and unified the problem is made in accordance with the provisions of the party constitution. Constitution in general programme requirements adhere to democratic centralism is one of the requirements of the construction of the party must adhere to the four cardinal. Application of this principle is not only the party the basic organization principle and is also the mass line in party life, it requires that we must fully develop inner-party democracy, respect for the dominant position of Party members, safeguarding the Party member democratic rights, give full play to the enthusiasm and creativity of the party organizations at all levels and Party members, at the same time, also must implement the right concentration, ensure the party's mission < the chaos in unity and concerted action to ensure that the party's decision to get quickly and effectively implementing. The Party Central Committee formulated the major principles and policies, through different channels and ways, fully listen to the party organizations and Party members of the opinions and suggestions, but 12 is some people face to face not to say back blather "" will not say, after the meeting said, "" Taiwan does not say, and nonsense ", in fact, not only disrupt the people thought, some causing serious consequences, the damage to the Party of the centralized and unified, hinder the central policy implementation, but also a serious violation of the democratic system of principles. There is no doubt that shall, in accordance with the Regulations > 4 Specified in Article 6 to give the appropriate punishment. For did not cause serious consequences, to give criticism and education or the corresponding tissue processing. (2) about the destruction of the party's unity < New Regulations > the forty eighth to fifty second article, to damage Party's unity unified and violation of political discipline, punishment situation made explicit provisions. Article 52 of the new "in the party get round group, gangs seek private gain, cliques, cultivate private forces or through the exchange of interests, for their own to create momentum and other activities to gain political capital, given a serious warning or withdraw from their party posts disposition; if the circumstances are serious, to give Leave a party to observation or expelled from the party. (3) on against the organization review of the provisions of the constitution, party loyalty honesty is party members must comply with the obligations. Members must obey the organization decision, shall not violate the organization decided encounters by asking questions to find organization, rely on the organization, shall not deceive the organization, against the organization. For example, after the investigation does not take the initiative to explain the situation, but to engage in offensive and defensive alliance, hiding the stolen money is against survey organization, is a violation of the behavior of political discipline. Article 24 of the original > < Regulations, although the provisions of the interference, hinder group review the behavior of the fabric can be severely or 13 Aggravated punishment, but did not put this kind of behavior alone as a discipline for qualitative amount of discipline. > < new regulations increase the Article 57, "anti organization review, one of the following acts, given a warning or serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, give expelled from the party: (a) on supply or forged, destroyed, transfer, conceal evidence; (II) to prevent others expose, providing evidence Material; (III) harboring co personnel; (4) to the organization to provide false information, to hide the fact; (5) the him against the acts of the organization review. "< rule > add this clause to the Constitution requires more specific, the previous no punishment in accordance with the definite list and put forward clear punishment in accordance with. (4) about organizing or participating in superstitious activities as < Regulations > about engage in activities of feudal superstition obstruction of social management order" violations of Article 164 the provisions, but according to the original < rule > only in disrupting production, work, social life order The case to be disciplinary treatment, in other words, alone make the feudal superstition, organize or participate in the activities of feudal superstition of, does not constitute a violation. Which is not consistent with the requirements of our party's political party. > < new regulations in this change is, superstitious activities on the political discipline, increase the Article 58, is the organization of Party members, in superstitious activities included in violation of the negative list of political discipline deserves punishment, which and Party members should adhere to the correct political principle, political standpoint and viewpoint is consistent. 14 the second question about organization and discipline violation behavior of democratic centralism is our The party's fundamental organizational system. < New Regulations > Chapter 7 "in violation of the behavior of organizational discipline punishment" mainly for violation of democratic centralism, contrary to the "four obey the discipline behavior for source classification rules. Increased not in accordance with the relevant provisions or requirements to the organization for instructions to report on major issues; do not report truthfully report about personal matters; falsify personal archives; hide before joining the party serious mistakes; leading cadres in violation of the relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of the old Xiang, Alumni Association, comrades in arms; to obtain illegal country residence abroad or foreign nationality, illegal for private frontier Documents such as discipline terms. (1) on the report truthfully report personal matters in 2010 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China office, office of the State Council introduced < provisions on issues related to the leading cadres to report personal >, is clear about the request, deputy division level and above leading cadres should truthfully report changes in my marriage and spouse, children, moved to the country (territory), practitioners, income, real estate, investment and other matters, for failing to report, do not report, concealed and unreported, according to the seriousness of the case, giving criticism and education, and to make a correction within a time limit, shall be ordered to make a check, the commandment Jiemian conversation, informed criticism or jobs, free Post processing, constitute violations, in accordance with the relevant provisions shall be given a disciplinary sanction. But since the original < Regulations > and there is no corresponding specific terms, the violation of the regulations, do not report, as a false report about personal matters, there is no corresponding disciplinary action terms, in practice it is difficult to operate. In this regard, in order to solve is not reported, as a false report about personal matters 15 asked censure, the new < Regulations > add the Article 67 of violation of personal matters related to reporting requirements, report truthfully report the clear punishment basis, making this kind of violation behavior is no longer free drilling for Exhibition on matters of personal checks to verify and supervision of cadres, discipline review provides a powerful discipline guarantee. (2) about the illegal organization, to fellow, alumni, friends of the war will < regulations stipulated in Article 68 of >, leading cadres of the party in violation of relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrade in arms to give the punishment according to the seriousness of the case. Here special needs note is three points: this provision for only the leading cadres ", reflecting the high requirements of leading cadres; second violation in 2002, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the central Organization Department and the The relevant provisions of the General Political Department jointly issued the < off in leading cadres not to participate in the initiative to set up "the villagers would be" alumni "" comrades in arms organization notice >. That is to say, to the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrades in arms will constitute the premise of discipline is a violation of the provisions of this. The notification specified, leading cadres are not allowed to participate in the spontaneous incorporation of fellow, alumni, between comrades association would like the organization and shall not bear the sorority Human and the organizer shall not hold the corresponding position in the sorority; shall not borrow machine woven "network" and engage in kiss sparsely, round and round the gangs, but not "align" "Jieyi Gold Orchid" behavior. The third is to emphasize here that shall be organized to participate in the initiative to set up the villager, Alumni Association, comrades in arms. The so-called 16 spontaneous was established mainly means without registration. Therefore, Party members include leading cadres in the normal range of fellow, alumni, comrades in the party is not a violation of the rules of Party discipline. The three problem about integrity violations discipline Lian Jie discipline has been eighteen years clean government and anti The focus of the work of corruption. This Ordinance to amend, honesty and discipline this biggest adjustment, the new content, most of which prescribed by the original < criterion of a clean and honest administration > 8 ban and 52 are not allowed into the basic this part. (1) the central eight provisions of the spirit and requirements into < New > in the regulations of the party's eighteen years, central resolutely implement the provisions of the eight and pay close attention to the node and intensive briefing, on public funds, private bus, public funds tourism, gifts of public funds, the big parade and lavish weddings and festive, illegal payment allowances and subsidies, illegal construction of buildings such as the original masses reflects the relatively strong, "four winds" problem of the Resolute rectification. But original < Regulations > to eat and drink, super standard reception and no clear and specific expression, new < rule > will implement eight Central provisions of the spirit of the problem increased to "clean cheap self-discipline" chapter, clear to exceed the standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eating and drinking etc. some in violation of the provisions of the spirit of the eight central relevant persons responsible for punishment, once the violation will be according to the < rule > severely punished, binding, enhanced significantly. One is to add Article 87, about to obtain illegal, hold, and the actual use of the sports card, golf ball cards and other consumer card. Illegal access to private clubs made the punishment provisions. The second is increase the Article 97, has made provisions of the disposition of illegal self pay or 17 spamming allowances, subsidies and bonuses. The third is added to the Article 99, on violation of super standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eat and drink to make the provisions of punishment. The fourth is to increase the Article 101, on the management of conference activities in violation of the provisions made sanctions regulations. The fifth is the increased Article 102, for violation of office space management provisions made the punishment provisions. Six is to split the original < rule > Article 78, formed article 98, Article 100 of public Models of tourism, violate the provisions on the administration of the use of discipline of the bus through the list of made a more detailed provisions, apply more operational. Seven is increased the article 96, in violation of the relevant provisions of the, to participate in public funds to pay for dinner, high consumption of entertainment, fitness activities and public funds to buy gift, send gifts to make the provisions of the disposition. On the violation of the central provisions of the spirit of the eight, in addition to > < new regulations into "violation of honesty and self-discipline" misconduct outside, is different with the original < Regulations >, revised < rule > clearly defined not only to disposition of the directly responsible persons, but also dispose of collar Guide responsibilities. (2) increased trading rights, use of authority or position influence as relatives and close to profit violation of the terms of the < New Regulations > absorption < clean politics several guidelines > the relevant provisions spirit, increase the "negative list, including trading rights, the functions and powers or duties of influence as relatives and staff around profit. Increase Article 81" mutual use of office or authority ring for each other and their spouses, children and their spouses and other relatives, around 18 personnel and other specific relationship between the people to seek benefits engage in trading rights, given a warning or serious warning Sanctions; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, shall be expelled from the party. Increase Article 82 "connivance, acquiescence to the spouse, children and spouse etc. relatives and staff around the effect of Party members and cadres personal authority or position for personal gain, if the circumstances are relatively minor, given a warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, the given Expelled from the party. Party members and cadres of the spouses, children and their spouses does the actual work and get salary or although the actual work but to receive significantly beyond the same rank salary standard, Party members and cadres informed fails to correct, in accordance with the provisions of the preceding paragraph. "(3) about the gifts, gifts misconduct from handling practices in recent years, engaged in official cadres received gifts, gifts problems more prominent. This has seriously affected the image of Party members and cadres, damaged the relations between the party and the masses, and is a hotbed of corruption, is really necessary for this kind of behavior to be disciplined. < rule > no on accepting gifts, gifts, Card consumption behavior to engage in simple "one size fits all", but the difference between the different separately. One is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting may affect the impartial enforcement of the official gifts, gifts, consumer cards to depending on the seriousness of the case shall be given disciplinary sanctions. That is to say, for may affect the fair execution of business gifts, gifts, consumer cards are not allowed to accept. 19 is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting was significantly higher than normal ceremony is still exchanges of gifts, gifts, consumer card to disciplinary action. This is new regulations that daily life is purely reciprocity, accepting the same thing, boys , fellow friends gifts, gifts, shopping cards, although and fair execution of business has nothing to do, also want to as the case shall be dealt with, the situation is obviously beyond normal reciprocity ". The so-called" reciprocity ", one is emphasizes the reciprocal in protocol. In other words is you to me how, I to you how, not only does not go. The second is to significantly exceeded the normal local economy level, customs and habits, economic capacity of individual gifts, gift value. Specific sanctions to according to the processing of a variety of factors to consider, as appropriate. The third is the root according to the provisions of Article 84," to Engaged in public service personnel and their spouses and children, children's spouses and other relatives and other specific relationship presented Ming Xianchao normal reciprocity of gifts, gifts, consumer card, if the circumstances are relatively serious, given a warning until probation. "In accordance with the above provisions, gift giving significantly beyond the normal reciprocity, giver constitute the discipline. (4) on illegal trading of stocks or of other regulations of securities investment < > Article 88 is engaged in punishment regulation of camp and activity in violation of the relevant provisions on. Among them, 3 will" buying and selling stocks or in other securities investment "column as one of disciplinary cases Out. First need to be clear, > < regulations did not change the provisions of the Ordinance. The ordinance of the provisions of the second paragraph of Article 77 provisions "who, in violation of the provisions of the sale of stocks" is one of the violation, and at the beginning of the first paragraph of this article "violation of 20 against the relevant provisions of the" textual representation of the repeat revision. In, just from the legislative technique removed the "personal" in violation of the provisions, content and not to change the original provisions. Need to clear is, "buy or sell a stock or of other securities investment" refers to violation of the relevant provisions refers to in April 2001, the Party Central Committee, the State Council promulgated the On the work of the party and government organs staff's personal investment in securities if dry provisions >. According to the provisions of Article 3, use of work time, office facilities, the sale of stocks and securities investment fund belongs to illegal behavior. The fourth question, about the violation of the masses of the disciplinary actions < new regulations > would violate public discipline behavior of a single set of a class of restored "three rules of discipline and eight note" in the discipline of the masses of excellent traditional. < New Regulations > Chapter 9 "to violate the masses of disciplinary action", mainly the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary; enrich and perfect the super standard, beyond the scope of Xiang Qun < All to raise fund and labor, in for involving the public affairs deliberately, chinakayao, in social security, policy support, disaster relief funds and materials and other matters assigned any kind and affectionate friends, obviously unfair acts against the interests of the masses of the disciplinary terms; increase the terms not in accordance with the provisions of the public party provided, government, factory and village (neighborhood) provided etc. violation of the people's right to know the behavior of the discipline. The fifth issue, on the violation of work discipline violation of work discipline added "negative list, including Party organizations carry out strictly Main responsibility for poor discipline terms. (1) the new party organization comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party does not fulfill the 21 or perform poor disciplinary terms < New Regulations > has a lead people to pay attention to the new terms, that is, in chapter ten "on the violation of work discipline behavior punishment" increase in the one hundred and fourteenth "party fail to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party or to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility for administering the ineffective, resulting in serious damage or serious adverse effects, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership and give a warning or serious warning. The situation is serious, giving removed from their party posts or on probation Punishment. "Here the changes. For the first time, the main responsibility write < rule >. (2) new shall report does not report or false reporting discipline shall increase the 117 bar" in the higher level units to check to inspect the work or report to the parent unit, work report of shall report the matters do not report or do not report, cause serious damage or serious adverse effects of, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership, to give warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are serious, giving removed from their party posts or placed on probation. "For example, during the tour visits to the region, the unit Members the obligation to the inspection teams to reflect the true situation, to conceal not reported or intentionally to the inspection teams to provide false information, causing serious damage or serious adverse effects of, the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership should be in accordance with the provisions of < rule > Article 117 to give the appropriate punishment. (3) the new not granted in accordance with the provisions of punishment, not according to the provisions of the implementation of disciplinary measures 22 violation of the provisions of Article 115 "Party organizations have one of the following circumstances, the direct leadership responsibility. Probation: members were sentenced punished, in accordance with the provisions give disciplinary action or in violation of state law Rules of behavior should be given disciplinary punishment and dispose of; disciplinary punishment by decision or complaint review the decision made, not in accordance with the provisions of the implementation decisions on punishment of the party, position, rank, and the treatment of the matters; Party members subject to disciplinary action, not in accordance with the cadre management authority and organizational relationships of by dispose of Party members to carry out education and supervision of daily management. "What needs to be pointed out is," cliff "demoted with cars, housing, secretary problem, implementation is not a discipline and party posts and ranks treatment by the organization department is responsible for the implementation, with cars, housing by the logistics department is responsible for the implementation of, Ji Commission responsible oversight responsibilities. The six questions, about the acts violating the discipline of life "in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment", mainly to "four winds" problems and a serious violation of social morality, family virtue acts of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary, an increase of extravagant life, contrary to the social public order and good customs disciplinary terms. Worth mentioning is, > < Regulations in Article 150 about "adultery" "mistress (Cardiff) formulation in the new < rule > is removed, to expand the scope of Article 127 provisions" and others hair improper sexual relations, let face disciplinary action Wider more strict. Four, and earnestly do a good job in the < code > and < rule > implement system of life lies in execution. < code > and < Regulations > is 23 Party organizations at all levels of a strong constraint and all Party members follow. Learning and implementing the < code > and < rule > is party committees (party), commission for discipline, discipline inspection group), the majority of Party members and cadres of the common responsibility, must party caught together, the party one execution. () Party committees (party) and play and implement comprehensive strictly the main responsibility, pays special attention to the two party regulations learning cross penetration. One is to Adhere to the party constitution is fundamental to follow, and resolutely safeguard the authority of the Party Chapter. The second is to adhere to the problem oriented, to strictly political discipline and political rule moments in the first place. The third is to adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front must not allow the bottom line to break the discipline. The fourth is to seriously organize the study of propaganda and education, in the city party members to create a disciplined, about the rules of the strong atmosphere. (II) Commission for Discipline Inspection at all levels (Discipline Inspection Group) to an important basis for the revised two party regulations as, adhere to easily blame, strengthen supervision and enforcement And early method in combining Ji, increase accountability efforts. One is to two regulations within the party important basis, adhere to the party constitution duties, with strict discipline to maintain the constitution authority. The second is to adhere to high standards and keep the bottom line, adhere to Ji Yan in law and discipline, the discipline and rules quite in front, grasping grasping small, easily blame, comprehensive use of supervision and discipline of "four kinds of form" in the discipline embodies the strict requirements and care for the discipline, tighten up, Yan. According to discipline in accordance with regulations to carry out disciplinary review. Increase the violations punishment, clues can initiate an investigation on the trial of cases According to the discipline on the provisions of the proportion of processing and control manager maintains discipline. To focus on investigating non convergence, don't accept hand serious disciplinary violations at the same time, pay more attention to the general review of discipline 24 behavior, and gradually increase the lighter punishment. Four is to illuminate two party regulations, combined with the local district of the Department of party conduct Lianzheng to relevant laws and regulations system clean, timely research proposes to establish, change, waste release opinion, avoid conflict, and the fasten system of cage, and gradually formed not rot, not rot, not want to rot system and working mechanism. (3) the leadership of the party members and cadres should play an exemplary role. The rate of higher consciousness of the front of the Ordinance to lead practice self-discipline norms, leading to maintain discipline of seriousness and authority. One is the above rate, demonstration and guidance, take the lead in learning and mastering the < code > and < > the requirements and regulations, do the deep understanding, learning to use. The second is to play an exemplary role in abiding by discipline rate, take the lead in practicing self-discipline norms, firmly establish before the discipline are equal, the system has no privilege, discipline is no exception, and consciously do standards, require more strict measures more practical. Third is to consciously accept supervision, conscientiously participate in the democratic life and debriefing honesty responsibility, such as Real to the party organization to report personal matters, and to accept the supervision of the work and life of the normal, habits under the supervision of the exercise of power, to carry out the work. The fourth is to set an example for the strict enforcement of discipline. Leading cadres should take the lead in the maintenance of discipline of seriousness and authority, to dare to seriously, dare to struggle, dare to offend people, for misconduct not laissez faire, but do not indulge, not tolerate to ensure the party constitution of party compasses party put in place. (4) the majority of Party members and cadres to set high standards and hold the bottom line, consciously abide by the < code > and < rule >. One is to control the < standard > and < 25 cases >, tight Close connection with their own thoughts, practical work and life, efforts to solve the problems, to enhance the study and implement of the effectiveness and pertinence. The second is to establish a high standard and hold the bottom line, consciously in the self-discipline pursuit of high standards, strictly in the party away from the red line discipline, discipline, about the rules and know fear, distrust, the formation of the honor system, comply with the system, safeguard system of good habits. Regulations and discipline regulations of < < New Revision of the Communist Party of China clean fingered self-discipline criterion > and < Chinese Communist Party Disciplinary Regulations > is the Party Central Committee in the new situation to promote the comprehensive strictly root of the lift, the regulations of the party construction of keeping pace with the times. We should study and implement the Standards > and < > as the primary political task, adhere to the party constitution duties, adhere to the discipline of, Ji Yan in law, the full implementation of supervision and discipline accountability responsibilities for coordination and promotion "four overall" strategic layout in XX District vivid practice to provide a strong guarantee. - Si Jian Wu, and effectively enhance the implementation of the implementation of the < code > < > The consciousness of General Secretary Xi pointed out that the party is in charge of the party, to manage the party; strictly, it can cure good party. Criterion > and < rule > keep pace with the times is our party to form a new potential strictly rules, to deepen understanding of the ruling law, is a comprehensive strictly, and strengthen the supervision within the party important grasper. Criterion > closely linked to the theme of self-discipline, self-discipline intensity-modulated, focusing on morality, for the majority of Party members and cadres set to see, feel the high standard, show the Communists noble moral sentiment; District Ordinance < < rule > the constitution of discipline integration into a political discipline, organization and discipline, honesty and discipline, discipline of the masses, work discipline, discipline, emphasize discipline, focusing on established rules, to draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the bottom line. Party committees (party) to effectively strengthen the study and publicize the implementation of the < code > and < rule > the organization and leadership of criterion > and < > a full range, multi angle, deep publicity, the formation of study and publicize and implement the boom, in order to consolidate the development of good political environment to create a positive environment and atmosphere. The majority of Party members and cadres to strict requirements, the < rule > and < Ordinance cases > as a guide to action and behavior criterion, adhere to the moral standards and discipline of the bottom line, to maintain the discipline of worship and awe, learning, compliance, and maintain party discipline and rules of the model. The discipline inspection and supervision organs and cadres to the < code > and < > as the deepening of the "three", and strengthen supervision and discipline of accountability is important to follow correctly grasp the use of supervision and discipline of "four types", promote the comprehensive strictly in new roots. Strict discipline, adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front of the enterprise in the implementation of expensive to implement to execute. The discipline inspection and supervision organs to implement the < code > and < Efforts to investigate cases > as an opportunity, adhere to the party should manage the party strictly, serious performance of their duties to promote two regulations implementation. Change discipline concept. From the simple "investigation of illegal" to a comprehensive "stare at violate discipline"; from the business case to prosecute the big cases and timely solve the signs of tilt to. From the orientation to the normal supervision; from the tube "minority" to resist the "most". Guide Party members and cadres to seriously implement the < code > and < rule >, consciously abide by the political, organizational, honest people, work, life six discipline. Urge the leadership cadres sent to play an exemplary role, take the lead in strictly enforced. Relaxation and rest Strong wind is Su Ji, closely linked to the "four winds" prone to multiple, the masses reflect the strong important nodes and, glued to the four winds "new form, new trends, seriously investigate and deal with violations of the central eight provisions of the spirit, to increase the bulletin exposure intensity, the formation of Chajiu" four winds "loudly, continue to release and discipline must be strict signal. At the same time, extended supervision tentacles, through the development of the rural and fishery party conduct Lianzheng construction inspection, issued in a timely manner, Chajiu occurred in grassroots side of corruption and unhealthy, and earnestly safeguard the interests of the masses and social stability. The creativity and discipline. Grasp and make good use of the supervision and discipline of" four types ", to ensure the Promoting clues to lots of discipline and the law of the vacuum tube, strict together. Not only to the "less" and "very few" thorough investigation severely punished, but also the "most" to maintain zero tolerance trend through layers of conductive pressure, let the discipline about the rules for each party members and cadres consciously follow. At present, it is necessary to implement the "list" management, strictly follow the clues to the disposal of five standards, make the classification of disposal, dynamic cleanup. Zadok Party committees at all levels to implement the main responsibility, comprehensive use of disciplinary action and tissue processing and other means to effectively curb the commonplace, used to see do not blame the "small problem", not because of "practice" and "exception". Prominent Discipline characteristics, the problems of violation of discipline and rules into the focus of supervision and discipline and disciplinary review. At the same time, increase case double check the intensity, the serious problems of discipline violations or "four winds" ban but not absolutely, not only to be held directly responsible, but also held leadership responsibility; not only to pursue studies the main responsibility of the Party committee, and to pursue Commission for Discipline Inspection and supervision responsibilities and promote accountability to become the new norm. The implementation of supervisory responsibility. Maintain < code > and < rule > the seriousness and authority of the discipline and rules and truly become the party's ruler. Discipline as supervision within the party the specialized agency, we must strengthen the responsibility to act, adhere to the Impartial discipline accountability, earnestly will be strict discipline, discipline must be punished, and severely punish the acts in violation of rules and regulations.