chapter 2

nullCHAPTER 2琼州学院外国语学院*CHAPTER 2Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese1 Synthetic vs. Analytic琼州学院外国语学院*1 Synthetic vs. AnalyticA synthetic language is characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms （affixation）to express grammatical relationships. (Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary) An analytic language is marked by a relatively frequent use of function words, auxiliary verbs, and changes in word order to express syntactic relations, rather than of inflected forms. (The Random House College Dictionary)null琼州学院外国语学院*Modern English has become analytic but still frequently uses some hereditary inflections from Old English（a synthetic language）. It is therefore a synthetic-analytic language. Chinese is a typical analytic language. Inflection，word order and the use of function words are employed as the three grammatical devices in building English sentences. English is a Synthetic language marked with inflexions, while Chinese is an analytic language without any inflexion, which is usually implied in the context or explicitly shown in such words as “着”， “了”，“过”,etc.null琼州学院外国语学院* 1. They told me that by the end of the year they would have been working together for thirty years. 2. During the wartime, years like these would have meant certain death for many people. Many would have become beggars and others would have been compelled to sell their children. 1、他们告诉我，到（那年）年底，他们在一起工作就有三十年了。 2、战争期间（要是）碰到这样的年景，很多人肯定会死去，很多人会逃荒要饭，很多人会被迫卖儿卖女。 1.1 Inflectional vs. Non-inflectional 琼州学院外国语学院*1.1 Inflectional vs. Non-inflectional In English, nouns, pronouns, and verbs are inflected（the endings -er, -est, denoting degrees of comparison, are better regarded as non-inflectional suffixes）. Such grammatical meanings as parts of speech, gender, number, case, person, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and non-finite verbs, can be expressed by the use of inflected forms with or without the help of function words and word order. Whereas in Chinese this is generally not true: the above grammatical meanings are mostly implied in contexts or between the lines, though often with the help of word order and function（or other）words, e.g.Example 1 琼州学院外国语学院*Example 1 He moved astonishingly fast. He moved with astonishing rapidity. His movements were astonishingly rapid. His rapid movements astonished us. His movements astonished us by their rapidity. The rapidity of his movements was astonishing. The rapidity with which he moved astonished us. He astonished us by moving rapidly. He astonished us by his rapid movements. He astonished us by the rapidity of his movements. 他的行动，快得惊人。 他行动的速度快得令人惊讶。 他行动速度之快，令人惊讶。 他的快速行动使我们感到惊讶。 我们对他的快速行动感到惊讶。 Example 2琼州学院外国语学院*Example 2我给他一本书。 他已给我两本书。 他爸爸常常给他一些书。 I gave him a book. He has given me two books. His father often gives him books. 1.2 Word Order: Flexible vs. Inflexible琼州学院外国语学院* 1.2 Word Order: Flexible vs. InflexibleThe inflection of a language has much to do with the position of words in the sentence. The less inflective a language, the more rigid the word order. Hence word order in English is not so rigid as in Chinese. More ways of inversion, grammatical or rhetorical, are often seen in English: （1）Interrogative inversion（疑问倒装） （2）Imperative inversion（命令倒装） （3）Exclamatory inversion（惊叹倒装） （4）Hypothetical inversion（假设倒装） （5）Balance inversion（平衡倒装） （6）Link inversion（衔接倒装） （7）signpost inversion（点 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 倒装） （8）Negative inversion（否定倒装） （9）Metrical inversion（韵律倒装） Examples琼州学院外国语学院*Examples1. What in the world do you mean? (C. Dickens)  2. Come you, everybody!  3. What a beautiful voice you have! (B. Shaw)  4. A pair of black eyes might have done some execution had they been placed in a smoother face. (W. Thacheray) 5. Inexpressible was the astonishment of the little party when they returned to find that Mr. Pickwick had disappeared. (C. Dickens) 6. Such are the rewards that always virtue. (Shakespeare) 7. By negation is meant the denial or absence of facts.  8. Not a finger did I lay on him. (R. Quick) 9. Good friend for Jesus’ sake, forbear To dig the dust enclosed here, Blest be he that spares these stones And curst be he that moves stones. (Shakespeare)Reference answers琼州学院外国语学院*Reference answers1、你究竟是什么意思？ 2、大家都来吧！ 3、你有多么好的嗓音啊！ 4、一对乌溜溜的眼睛如果长在一付细腻光滑的脸庞上，那简直太迷人的了。 5、当这一伙人回来发现皮克威克先生不见了的时候，那惊愕之态简直无法形容。 6、这样的报酬常常是美德所应该得到的。 7、否定是指否认事实或不存在的事实。 8、我从没有指责过他。 9、朋友，看在上帝的份上， 千万别掘此墓。 动土者将受灾， 保护者会得福。null琼州学院外国语学院*The flexible word order in English is mainly the result of the grammatical concord of words in the sentence which is achieved by inflection, When expressing temporal or logical sequences, English may make full use of inflections and function words to make its word order flexible, while Chinese, with the help of function words, arranges its word order according to certain rules of temporal or logical sequences: ① Category two contains only four items, and ② I shall say no more about them except that ，③ since they are under consideration，④ we should not let the grass grow under feet, but attempt, as early as possible, to arrive at a common understanding ⑤ in the interest of humanity. 第二类只包括四项内容，而且都已在审议之中。为了人类的利益，我们应该不失时机，力图尽快达成共识。除此之外，别的我就不多说了。null琼州学院外国语学院*1.3 The Use of Function Words: English and Chinese Make Use of Different Types of Function Words. English function words include the articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, coordinators and subordinators，while Chinese function words include particles，connectives, and prepositions. Each has its own features in the use of these words. null琼州学院外国语学院*The extensive use of English articles poses a big problem for our English learners. She was with a child. She was with child. They are students of our school. They are the students of our school. I have lived here for more than a year. I have lived here for more than one year. Please take a chair. He took the chair today. He took the chair of the committee. Reference Answers琼州学院外国语学院*Reference Answers她带着一个孩子。 她怀着孕。 他们是本校的部分学生。 他们是本校的全体学生。 我住在这里已一年多了。（一年又几个月） 我住在这里已不止一年了。（两年以上） 请坐。 今天他主持会议。／今天他拿走了那张椅子。 他接受担任委员会主席的职务。null琼州学院外国语学院*Chinese is rich in particles，which can be classified into aspect particles（动态助词，如：着、了、过），structural particles（结构助词，如：的、地、得），and emotional particles（语气助词，如：吗、呢、吧）. The frequent use of Chinese particles is a hard nut for foreign learners of Chinese. 1. 打吧，打不下去；跑吧，跑不了，敌人只好投降。（假设语气） 2. 你啊，老这样下去可不行！（加重语气） 3. 这也不能怪他，头一回嘛。（答辩语气） 1. Unable to fight on or to escape, the enemy was forced to surrender. 2. Look ! You can’t go on like this. 3. He’s not to blame. After all, it was the first time he’d done it. null琼州学院外国语学院*English has a large number of prepositions and prepositional phrases which are often in use, while Chinese has a few prepositions which are mostly "borrowed" from their corresponding verbs. A conversion of English prepositions into Chinese verbs is often necessary. 1.“Coming!” Away she skimmed over the lawn, up the path, up the steps, across the veranda, and into the porch. 2. What are these people after? They are after fame, position and opportunity to be in the limelight. 1、“来啦!”她转身蹦着跳着地跑了，越过草地，跑上小径， 跨上台阶，穿过凉台，进了门廊。 2、这些人争什么呢?争名誉, 争地位, 争出风头。null**English frequently uses its various connectives, coordinating or subordinating, including conjunctive and relative pronouns or adverbs, such as who, whom, whose, that, what, which, when, where, why, and how. Chinese has no such kind of conjunctives and relatives, and other connectives are not often used, except in formal writings. This was the period when Einstein began the research which resulted in the creation of his famous Theory of Relativity. 就在这期间，爱因斯坦开始进行了一项研究。经过这项研究，他创立了著名的相对论。 1.4 Intonation vs. Tone琼州学院外国语学院*1.4 Intonation vs. ToneEnglish is an intonation language while Chinese is a tone language. Strong stress; reduction; pitch; rising/falling tone; Mai: “to sell” & “to buy” One of the important features in modern Chinese is the predominance of disyllables and quadri-syllables over monosyllables and trisyllables. As a result, reduplication of characters, repetition of words, four-character expressions, and parallelism of syllables, words, phrases, and sentence structures have become popular Chinese grammatical and rhetorical devices.2 Rigid vs. Supple琼州学院外国语学院*2 Rigid vs. SuppleEnglish sentence structure is composed of noun phrase（s）and verb phrase（s）. It has become an invariable custom to have a subject before a verb, and therefore a sentence that does not contain a subject and a verb is felt to be incomplete. The subject（S）must agree with the predicate verb（V）in person and number, etc. This rigid S-V concord forms the kernel of a sentence, with the predicate verb controlling other main members. English sentences, however long and complicated, can be reduced to five basic patterns: SV, SVP（predicative), SVO, SVoO, and SVOC (complement).null琼州学院外国语学院*English sentences can be summarized as these five patterns or their variants，expansion，combination，omission，or inversion. （1）Variants: interrogative, negative, and passive; There be + subject. （2）Expansion: adding modifiers, including words, phrases, and clauses; using phrases or clauses instead of words as the members of the basic patterns. （3）Combination: combining simple sentences into compound or compound-complex sentences. （4）Omission: omitting certain members of the sentence. （5）Inversion: inverting the word order of the sentence. null琼州学院外国语学院*王力指出, “就句子的结构而论，西洋语言是法治的，中国语言是人治的。” 所谓“法治”，即句子的形式严格受到语法的制约，如句子必须有主语和谓语动词，及物动词必须有宾语，这些“不管用得着用不着，总要呆板地求句子形式的一律”。所谓“人治”，即句子比较不受形式的约束，可以因 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 意的需要而加以变通，词语的分合伸缩比较灵活，“用得着就用，用不着就不用”，只要双方意思明白，就可以了。 英语有综合语的特征，受形态的约束，因而“语法是硬的，没有弹性”；汉语是 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 语，不受形态的约束，因而“语法是软的，富于弹性”。 3 Hypotactic vs. Paratactic琼州学院外国语学院* 3 Hypotactic vs. ParatacticHypotaxis is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives. English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis. Parataxis is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis. null琼州学院外国语学院*To clarify the relations between words, phrases or clauses, English more often resorts to overt cohesion，frequently using various cohesive ties such as relatives（relative or conjunctive pronouns and adverbs, e. g. who, whom, whose, that, which, what, when, where, why, how）, connectives（coordinate or subordinate conjunctions, e. g. and, or, but, yet, so, however, as well as, (n)either…(n)or…, when, while, as, since, until, so… that, unless, lest）, prepositions, and some others. All was cleared up some time later when news came from a distant place that an earthquake was felt the very day the little copper ball fell. 过了一些时候，从远方传来了消息：在小铜球坠落的当天，确实发生了地震。这一切终于得到了澄清。null琼州学院外国语学院*By contrast, Chinese more frequently relies on covert coherence and context, focusing on temporal or logical sequences. Instead of using various cohesive ties such as relatives, connectives and prepositions as in English, Chinese more often resorts to word order, contracted sentences, four-character expressions and some grammatical or rhetorical devices such as repetition, antithesis, and parallelism. Compare English with Chinese: 1. 人不犯我，我不犯人。（语序） 2. 他不来，我不去。（对照） 3. 聪明一世，糊涂一时。（对偶） 4. 有饭大家吃。（紧缩句） 5. 不进则退。（四字格） We will not attack unless we are attacked. If he won’t come here, I’ll not go there. / I won’t go unless he comes. / I’ll stay until he comes. Smart as a rule, but this time a fool. Let everybody share the food if there is any. He who does not advance falls backward. / Move forward, or you'll fall behind.null琼州学院外国语学院*王力指出, “西洋语的结构好像连环，虽则环与环都联络起来，毕竟有联络的痕迹；中国语的结构好像无缝天衣，只是一块一块的硬凑，凑起来还不让它有痕迹。西洋语法是硬的，没有弹性的；中国语法是软的，富于弹性的。惟其是硬的，所以西洋语法有许多呆板的要求，如每一个clause 里必须有一个主语；惟其是软的，所以中国语法只以达意为主，如初系的目的位可兼次系的主语，又如相关的两件事可以硬凑在一起，不用任何的connective word 。” 高名凯也指出, “汉人平常说话不喜欢用太多没有基本意义的虚词，只是把事情或意思排列起来，让人去了解这两个事情或两个意思之间所生的关系如何。不过这并不是说汉人说话不合逻辑，因为不加虚词，我们也知道这句话的意思。” 4 Complex vs. Simplex 琼州学院外国语学院*4 Complex vs. Simplex English sentences are long and complex, while Chinese sentences are short and simple. Subordination, the placing of certain elements in modifying roles, is a fundamental feature of English. With plenty of subordinate clauses and phrases, English has comparatively longer and more complicated sentences than Chinese which, on the other hand, is marked by its coordination, loose or minor sentences, contracted sentences, elliptical sentences, run-on sentences, and composite sentences.null琼州学院外国语学院*There is no more differences, but there is just the same kind of difference, between the mental operations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person as there is between the operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher who weights out his goods in common scales and the operations of a chemist who performs a difficult and complex analysis by means of his balance and finely graduated weights. 科学家的思维活动和普通人的思维活动之间存在着差别，这种差别就跟一个面包师或者买肉者和一个化验师在操作 方法 快递客服问题件处理详细方法山木方法pdf计算方法pdf华与华方法下载八字理论方法下载 上的差别一样。前者用普通的秤称东西的重量，而后者则用天平和精密砝码进行艰难复杂的分析。其差别不过如此。5 Impersonal vs. Personal琼州学院外国语学院*5 Impersonal vs. PersonalFormal written English often goes with an impersonal style, in which the writer does not refer directly to himself or his readers, but avoids the pronouns I, we, and you, thus the writer and the reader are out of the picture, hiding themselves behind impersonal language. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns as subjects (Leech 1974:25). Chinese, by contrast, prefers to use a personal style, which is featured by much more actives or actives in form but passives in sense, personal (animate) subjects, or subjectless and subject-omitted sentences when the subject is self-evident, unknown or implied in the context. null琼州学院外国语学院*The conversion of English impersonal subjects into Chinese personal subjects and English passives into Chinese actives is often employed in translation. The happiness — the superior advantages of the young women round about her, gave Rebecca inexpressible pangs of envy. (W. Thackeray: Vanity Fair) Specialties in colleges and universities should be adjusted and teaching methods improved. 丽贝卡看见她周围的小姐那么福气，享受种种优越的权利，却有说不出的眼红。 必须调整高等院校的专业设置，改进教学方法。6 Passive vs. Active 琼州学院外国语学院*6 Passive vs. Active Passives of various forms are frequently used in English mainly due to the following reasons: (1) When the agent of an action is self-evident or unknown, or it is unnecessary or impossible to mention the agent. e.g. The murderer was caught yesterday, and it is said that he will be hanged. (2) Syntactic factors: for cohesion, balance, end focus, end weight, etc. e.g. I was astounded that he was prepared to give me a job. (3) Rhetorical factors: for variation, etc. e.g. There are many ways to vary the basic English sentence pattern of subject-verb-object. → The basic English sentence pattern of subject-verb-object can be varied in many ways. (4) Stylistic factors: more passives in informative writing, notably in the objective, non-personal style of scientific articles, news items, and government communications. e.g. The resistance can be determined provided that the voltage and current are known.7 Static vs. Dynamic琼州学院外国语学院*7 Static vs. DynamicBroadly speaking, nouns can be characterized as “stative” in that they refer to entities that are regarded as stable. At the opposite pole, verbs can be equally characterized as “dynamic”: they are fitted (by their capacity to show tense and aspect, for example) to indicate action, activity and temporary or changing conditions. Adjectives and prepositions often go hand in hand with nouns while adverbs are frequently used with verbs. English is featured by its predominance of nouns over verbs. Instead of saying quite simply and straightforwardly London is growing rapidly, they say London’s growth is rapid. And they say John’s arrival was premature instead of John came too soon.” Hence nominalization is a common occurrence in English.null琼州学院外国语学院*English makes more use of nouns, adjectives, and prepositions, and is therefore more static. Conversely, Chinese often employs verbs, adverbs, verbal phrases, repetition and reduplication of verbs, and is therefore more dynamic. Compare: 1.The doctor’s extremely quick arrival and uncommonly careful examination of the patient brought about his very speedy recovery. 2. The abuse of basic human rights in their own country in violation of the agreement reached at Helsinki earned them the condemnation of freedom-loving people everywhere. 医生迅速到达，并非常仔细地检查了病人，因此病人很快就康复了。 他们违反在赫尔辛基达成的协议，在国内侵犯基本人权，因此受到了各地热爱自由的人们的谴责。null琼州学院外国语学院*As a result of the above difference, the conversion of the English nominal style into the Chinese verbal style, e.g. English nouns converted into Chinese verbs, adjectives into adverbs, prepositions into verbs, etc., is often employed in translation: 1. He is a good eater and a good sleeper. (C. Eckersley) 2. I used to be a bit of a fancier myself. 3. The computer is a far more careful and industrious inspector than human beings. 他能吃能睡。 过去我常常有点喜欢胡思乱想。 计算机比人检查得更细心、更勤快。 8 Abstract vs. Concrete琼州学院外国语学院*8 Abstract vs. ConcreteIn English, nominalization often results in abstraction. An excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done, and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. This method of abstract diction is found in the frequent use of abstract nouns. By contrast, Chinese prefers to use concrete or specific words and employs a “down-to-earth style”, expressing abstract ideas often by metaphors, similes, allegories, or other devices for making a thing plain. 1. He waited for her arrival with a frenzied agitation. 2. I marveled at the relentless determination of the rain. (N. Rigg) 雨无情地下个不停，我感到惊异。 他等着她来，急得像热锅上的蚂蚁。null琼州学院外国语学院*As a result of the above difference, the conversion of English abstract words into Chinese concrete words, figurative expressions or verbs is often employed in translation: 1. He had surfaced with less visibility in the policy decisions. (B. Barnhart) 2. High blood pressure is a contraindication for this drug. 3. The government is doing its best to ease the intension in that area. 在决策过程中，他已经不那么抛头露面了。 高血压患者忌服此药。 政府正在竭尽全力来缓和那个地区的紧张局势。9 Indirect vs. Direct琼州学院外国语学院*9 Indirect vs. DirectThe wider use of such devices as euphemism, understatement, litotes, indirect negation, periphrasis as well as the impersonal style and abstract diction makes English more indirect than Chinese. 9.1 Euphemism Compared with Chinese, English euphemism is widely used in all kinds of subjects, covering taboo, privacy, and other different aspects of social life, such as religion, birth, death, sex, love, age, disease, money, poverty, crime, profession, commerce, advertisement, education, politics, economy, war, diplomacy, etc. null琼州学院外国语学院*I used to think I was poor. Then they told me I wasn’t poor, I was needy. Then they said it was self-defeating to think of myself as needy, that I was culturally deprived. Then they told me deprived was a bad image, that I was underprivileged. Then they told me that underprivileged was overused, that I was disadvantaged. I still don’t have a dime, but I have a great vocabulary! (Jules Feiffer) 我以前总以为自己穷，后来他们告诉我，我并非“穷”，而是“拮据”；而后他们说，认为自己“拮据”未免自我坍台，还是说“被剥夺文化教育权利”；而后他们又说“被剥夺”三字形象不好，应该说，“机遇不佳”；而后他们又说，这个说法已经用腻了，现在该说“境况不利”。到头来我还是一文不名，可词儿却有了一大堆！9.2 Indirect Negation琼州学院外国语学院*9.2 Indirect NegationA strange feature of the syntax of subordination in colloquial English is the transfer of the negative from a subordinate that-clause, where semantically it belongs, to the main clause (Quirk 1972:789 ), e.g. “I don’t think he will come” instead of “I think he will not come”. 1. We don’t believe that the two boxers are very well-matched. 2. I do not think we can or should remain indiffer