Chapter 6语言学

Chapter6LanguageProcessinginMind[Igotthenoteofthischaptermostlyfromthisblogofhjbbs,specialthankswillgotothiswriter:http://blog.hjenglish.com/cxchun/archive/2006/07/27/391312.html–icywarmtea]6.1 Introduction1. Languageisamirrorofthemindinadeepandsignificantsense.2. Languageisaproductofhumanintelligence,createdanewineachindividualbyoperationthatliefarbeyondthereachofwillorconsciousness.3. Psycholinguistics“proper”canperhapsbeglossedasthestorage,comprehension,productionandacquisitionoflanguageinanymedium(spokenorwritten).4. Psycholinguisticsisconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructures.5. Thedifferencesbetweenpsycholinguisticsandpsychologyoflanguage. Psycholinguisticscanbedefinedasthestorage,comprehension,productionandacquisitionoflanguageinanymedium(spokenorwritten).Itisconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructures. Ontheotherhand,thepsychologyoflanguagedealswithmoregeneraltopicssuchastheextenttowhichlanguageshapesthought,andfromthepsychologyofcommunication,includesnon-verbalcommunicationsuchasgesturesandfacialexpressions.6. Cognitivepsycholinguistics:Cognitivepsycholinguisticsisconcernedaboveallwithmakinginferencesaboutthecontentofthehumanmind.7. Experimentalpsycholinguistics:Experimentalpsycholinguisticsismainlyconcernedwithempiricalmatters,suchasspeedofresponsetoaparticularword.6.1.1 Evidence1. Linguiststendtofavordescriptionsofspontaneousspeechastheirmainsourceofevidence,whereaspsychologistsmostlypreferexperimentalstudies.2. Thesubjectsofpsycholinguisticinvestigationarenormaladultsandchildrenontheonehand,andaphasics----peoplewithspeechdisorders-----ontheother.Theprimaryassumptionwithregardtoaphasicpatientthatabreakdowninsomepartoflanguagecouldleadtoanunderstandingofwhichcomponentsmightbeindependentofothers. 6.1.2 Currentissues1. Modulartheory:Modulartheoryassumesthatthemindisstructuredintoseparatemodulesorcomponents,eachgovernedbyitsownprinciplesandoperatingindependentlyofothers.2. Cohorttheory:Thecohorttheoryhypothesizesthatauditorywordrecognitionbeginswiththeformationofagroupofwordsattheperceptionoftheinitialsoundandproceedssoundbysoundwiththecohortofwordsdecreasingasmoresoundsareperceived.Thistheorycanbeexpandedtodealwithwrittenmaterialsaswell.Severalexperimentshavesupportedthisviewofwordrecognition.Oneobviouspredictionofthismodelisthatifthebeginningsoundorletterismissing,recognitionwillbemuchmoredifficult,perhapsevenimpossible.Forexample:Graytie------greateye;aname-----anaim;aniceman-----aniceman;Iscream-----icecream;SeeMable----seemable;wellfare----welfare;lookout------lookout;decade-----DeckEight;Layman------laymen;persistentturn------persistandturn3. Psychologicalreality:Therealityofgrammar,etc.asapurportedaccountofstructuresrepresentedinthemindofaspeaker.Oftenopposed,indiscussionofthemeritsofalternativegrammars,tocriteriaofsimplicity,elegance,andinternalconsistency.4. Thethreemajorstrandsofpsycholinguisticresearch:(1) Comprehension:Howdopeopleusetheirknowledgeoflanguage,andhowdotheyunderstandwhattheyhearorread?(2) Production:Howdotheyproducemessagesthatotherscanunderstandinturn?(3) Acquisition:Howlanguageisrepresentedinthemindandhowlanguageisacquired?6.2 Languagecomprehension6.2.1 Wordrecognition1. Aninitialstepinunderstandinganymessageistherecognitionofwords.2. Oneofthemostimportantfactorsthateffectswordrecognitionishowfrequentlythewordisusedinagivencontext.3. Frequencyeffect:describestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageinthelanguage.4. Recencyeffect:describetheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.5. AnotherfactorthatisinvolvedinwordrecognitionisContext.6. Semanticassociationnetworkrepresentstherelationshipsbetweenvarioussemanticallyrelatedwords.Wordrecognitionisthoughttobefasterwhenothermembersoftheassociationnetworkareprovidedinthediscourse.6.2.2 Lexicalambiguity1. lexicalambiguity:ambiguityexplainedbyreferencetolexicalmeanings:e.g.thatofIsawabat,whereabatmightrefertoananimalor,amongothers,stabletennisbat.2. Therearetwomaintheories:(1) Allthemeaningsassociatedwiththewordareaccessed,and(2) onlyonemeaningisaccessedinitially.e.g.a. Aftertakingtherightturnattheintersection….“right”isambiguous:correctvs.rightwardb. Aftertakingtheleftturnattheintersection…“left”isunambiguous6.2.3 Syntacticprocessing1. Onceawordhasbeendentified,itisusedtoconstructasyntacticstructure.2. Asalways,therearecinokucatuibsduetotheambiguityofindividualwordsandtothedifferentpossiblewaysthatwordscanbefitintophrases.Sometimesthereisnowaytodeterminewhichstructureandmeaningasentencehas.e.g.Thecopsawthespywiththebinoculars.“withthebinoculars”isambiguity(1) thecopemployedbinocularsinordertoseethespy.(2) itspecifies“thespyhasbinoculars.”3. Someambiguitiesareduetotheambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.e.g.thedeserttrains,trains( 培训 焊锡培训资料ppt免费下载焊接培训教程 ppt 下载特设培训下载班长管理培训下载培训时间表下载 ；列车)thedeserttrainsmantobehardly.沙漠使人坚韧。Thedeserttrainsseldomrunontime.沙漠列车从不准时。4. Oneinterestingphenomenonconcerningcertainambiguoussentencesiscalledthe“gardenpath.”Gardenpathsentencesaresentencesthatareinitiallyinterpretedwithadifferentstructurethantheyactuallyhave.Ittypicallytakesquitealongtimetofigureoutwhattheotherstructureisifthefirstchoiceturnsouttobeincorrect.Sometimespeopleneverfigureitout.Theyhavebeen“ledupthegardenpath”,fooledintothinkingthesentencehasadifferentstructurethanithas.Reducedrelativeclausesquitefrequentlycausethisfeelingofhavingbeengarden-pathed.e.g.“Thehorseracedpastthebarnfell.”means“thehorsethatwasracedpastthebarnfell.”5. theminimalattachmenttheory:Itwouldbeinefficientforpeopletoassumealltheseinfinitestructuresuntiltheygetsomepositiveevidenceforoneofthem.Andiftheyarbitrarilychoiceoneofthepossibilities,theyaremostlikelytochoosethesimplest.Theideaisthatpeopleinitiallyconstructthesimplest(orleastcomplex)syntacticstructurewheninterpretingthestructureofsentences.Thisiscalledtheminimalattachmenttheory. 6.2.4 Semanticsandsentencememory1. Assimilationtheory:Assimilationtheoryreferstolanguage(sound,word,syntax,etc.)changeorprocessbywhichfeaturesofoneelementchangetomatchthoseofanotherthatprecedesorfollows.2. Contexteffect:Contexteffecthelpspeoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.3. Inferenceincontext:Inferenceincontextreferstoanyconclusiondrawnfromasetofpropositions,fromsomethingsomeonehassaid,andsoon.Itincludesthingsthat,whilenotfollowinglogically,areimpliedinanordinarysense. 6.2.5 Basicprocessesinreading1. Perceptualspan:Theperceptualspanistherangeoflettersfromwhichusefulinformationisextracted.Theperceptualspanvariesdependingonfactorssuchasthesizeoftheprint,thecomplexityofthetext,andsoon.Itistypicallythecase,however,thattheperceptualspanencompassesaboutthreeorfourletterstotheleftoffixationandsomefifteenletterstotherightoffixation.2. Theimmediacyassumption:Thereaderissupposedtocarryouttheprocessesrequiredtounderstandeachwordanditsrelationshiptopreviouswordsinthesentenceassoonasthatwordisencountered.6.3 Discourse/textinterpretations1. Generalcontexteffects:Generalcontexteffectsoccurwhenourgeneralknowledgeabouttheworldinfluenceslanguagecomprehension.2. Specificcontexteffects:Specificcontexteffectsinvolveinformationobtainedfromearlierpartsofadiscourse.6.3.1 Schemataandinferencedrawing 1. Schematareferstopacketsofstoredknowledge.Itsfeaturesareasfollows:(1) Schematacanvaryconsiderablyintheinformationtheycontain,fromtheverysimpletotheverycomplex.(2) Schemataarefrequentlyorganizedhierarchically;e.g.inadditiontoarathergeneralrestaurantschemaorscript,weprobablyalsohavemorespecificrestaurantschematafordifferentkindsofrestaurant(e.g.fast-foodplaces,up-marketFrenchrestaurant,andsoon.)(3) Schemataoperateinatop-downorconceptuallydrivenwaytofacilitateinterpretationofenvironmentalstimuli.2. Theinferenceswhichpeopledrawarestoredinlong-termmemoryalongwithinformationaboutthesentencesactuallypresented.Asaresult,theywillsometimesmistakenlybelieveonasubsequentmemorytestthattheypreviouslyheardorsawaninference. 6.3.2 Storystructure1. Storystructurereferstothewayinwhichvariouspartsofstoryarearrangedororganized.2. Amacropropositionreferstothegeneralpropositionusedtoformanoverallmacrostructureofthestory.6.4 Languageproduction 6.4.1 Speechproduction 1. Fivedifferentlevelsofrepresentationinvolvedinspeakingasentence:(1) Themassage-levelrepresentation:thisisanabstract,pre-linguisticrepresentationoftheideaorideasthatthespeakerwantstocommunicate.(2) Thefunctional-levelrepresentation:thisisanoutlineoftheproposedutterancehavinggrammaticalstructure;inotherwords,theslotsfornouns,adjectives,andsoonareallocated,buttherearenoactualwordstofilltheslots.(3) Thepositional-levelrepresentation:thisdiffersfromthefunctionallevelrepresentationinthatitincorporatesthewordsofthesentencethatistobeproduced.(4) Thephonetic-levelrepresentation:thisindicatessomeofthenecessaryinformationaboutthewaysinwhichwordsintheintendedsentencesarepronounced.(5) Thearticulatory-levelrepresentation:thisisthefinalrepresentation,andcontainsasetofinstructionsforarticulatingthewordsinthesentenceinthecorrectorder.2. Spoonerism/slipofthetongue:Spoonerismreferstothefactthattheinitialletterorlettersoftwowordsaretransposed.3. Anticipationerror:Ananticipationerroroccurswhenawordisspokenearlierinthesentencethanitshouldbe.E.g.thesentence“Theschoolisatschool.”iswrong.Thecorrectformshouldbe“Theboyisatschool.”4. Exchangeerror:Anexchangeerrorreferstothefactthattwoitemswithinasentenceareswapped.E.g.thesentence“Thisisthehappiestlifeofmyday.”iswrong.Thecorrectformshouldbe“Thisisthehappiestdayofmylife.”5. Morpheme-exchangeerror:Amorpheme-exchangeerrorreferstothefactthattherootsorbasicformsoftwowordsareswitchedleavingthegrammaticalstructureunchanged.E.g.thesentence“Hehasalreadytrunkedtwopacks.”iswrong.Thecorrectformshouldbe“Hehasalreadypackedtwotrunks.” 6.4.2 Writtenlanguage1. Writingprocess:AccordingtoHayesandFlower(1986),writingconsistsofthreeinterrelatedprocesses:(1) Theplanningprocess,whichinvolvesproducingideasandarrangingthemintoawritingplanappropriatetothewriter’sgoals.(2) Thesentencegenerationprocess,whichtranslatesthewritingplanintoactualsentencesthatcanbewrittendown.(3) Therevisionprocess,whichinvolvesanevaluationofwhathasbeenwrittensofar;thisevaluationcanencompassindividualwordsatoneextremeortheoverallstructureofthewritingattheotherextreme. 2. Thestrategicknowledgeandtheknowledge-tellingtheoryThestrategicknowledgeisknowledgeofthemethodsusedinconstructingawritingplaninordertomakeitcoherentandwell-organized.Theknowledge-tellingstrategymeansthatchildrensimplywritedowneverythingtheycanthinkofthatisrelevanttoatopicwithoutorganizingtheinformationinanyway,becausetheyoftenlackthestrategicknowledge.