语言学第三章笔记和习题

...Chapter3Morphology*Lexiconisthecollectionofallthewordsofalanguage.Itissynonymouswith“vocabulary”.Wordsarethefocusofthestudyoflexicon,sotheemphasisofthischapterfallsuponwords,i.e.,theanalysisandcreationofwords.Linguistsdefinethewordasthesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.ThefeaturesofwordWordismeaningful;wordisagrammaticalunit;wordcanbeusedindependently;wordisrelativelystableanduninterruptible.*Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.*Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.*Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whereaslexiconisacomponentoflanguageinsteadofabranchoflinguistics.Openclasswordandclosedclassword*Openclasswords----contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amemberoftheBeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet,“做秀，时装秀…”inChinese.*Closedclasswords----grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.---Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.*1-morphemeboy,desire*2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble*3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity*4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity*5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness*7-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism*Morph:whenpeoplewishtodistinguishthesoundofamorphemefromtheentiremorpheme,theymaysuedtheterm.Itisthephoneticrealizationofamorpheme*Allomorph:Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.Itisthephoneticvariantofamorpheme.*Somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat”,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesomevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyaresaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:*map----maps[s]*dog----dogs[z]*watch----watches[iz]*mouse----mice[ai]*ox----oxen[n]*tooth----teeth*sheep----sheep*Eachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.*Affix*Prefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.*Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.Root:Therootconstitutesthecoreofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentofitsmeaning.Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Arootmaybefreeorbound(suchasmit,tain,cur,ceive).Anaffixisnaturallybound.Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme*Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.*Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.Somemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorpheme*Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.*Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablesapplescarsb)person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/John’sInflectionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.Englishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Somelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.àDerivationalmorphemes----àaffix(suffix,infix,prefix)+rootàInflectionalmorphemesà1111typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-’s,-s/es[possessive;plural]Verb+-s/es,-ing,-ed,-ed/-en[3rdpersonsingular;presentparticiple;pasttense,pastparticiple]Adj+-er,-est[comparative;superlative]InflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofawordInflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory;DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root(stem)+derivational+inflectionalConclusion:classificationofmorphemesMorphemesFreemorphemesBoundmorphemesInflexionalDerivational:affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphologicalrules*Therulesthatgoverntheformationofwords,e.g.the“un-+----”rule.unfairunthinkableunacceptable…*Compoundingisanotherwaytoformnewwords,e.g.landladyrainbowundertake…Theprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.Compounds*Nouncompoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)*Verbcompoundsbrainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)*Adjectivecompoundsmaneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)*Prepositioncompoundsinto(P+P)throughout(P+P)Somepointsaboutcompounds*Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black…*Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket…*Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouse…*Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Formationofnewwords1.Inflection:itisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase.2.DerivationDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.3.CompoundingCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.Incompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.Themeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.4.Conversion(invention)Conversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.5.Clipping(abbreviations)front,back,frontandbackClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.ClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.Someclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.6.BlendingBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).7.Back-formationBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.8.AcronymsAcronymsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.9.EponymsEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.10.CoinageCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.Thiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.11.Borrowing:EnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenitsvocabularybyBorrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess,suchas“atom,electricity”fromGreek,“cancer,tumour”fromLatin,“violin,pizza”fromItalian.12.Onomatopoeia:itisawayofcreatingwordsbyimitatingthesoundsoftheoutsideworld.SupplementaryExercisesChapter3：Morphology I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.2.Wordsarethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguage.3.Justasaphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.4.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitsthatcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesarefreemorphemes.5.Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes.6.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.7.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem,whichcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.8.Prefixesusuallymodifythepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,notthemeaningofit.9.Therearerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.Therefore,wordsformedaccordingtothemorphologicalrulesareacceptablewords.10.Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.II.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:11.M____isthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.12.Theaffix“-ish”inthewordboyishconveysag____meaning.13.B___________morphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.14.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalaffixesandd__________affixes.15.D________affixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreatewords.16.As______isaddedtotheendofstemstomodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordanditmaycasechangeitspartofspeech.17.C__________isthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.18.Therulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewwordarecalledm___________rules.19.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,d_______________canbeviewedastheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords.20.As______canbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitselftowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:21. Themorpheme“vision”inthecommonword“television”isa(n)______.  A.boundmorpheme   B.boundform    C.inflectionalmorpheme D.freemorpheme22.Thecompoundword“bookstore”istheplacewherebooksaresold.Thisindicatesthatthemeaningofacompound __________.A. isthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponentsB. canalwaysbeworkedoutbylookingatthemeaningsofmorphemesC. isthesameasthemeaningofafreephrase.D. Noneoftheabove.23.Thepartofspeechofthecompoundsisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechof__________. A.thefirstelement        B.thesecondelementC.eitherthefirstorthesecondelementD.boththefirstandthesecondelements.24._______arethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.  A.Free morphemes      B.Boundmorphemes  C.Boundwords         D.Words25._________isabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.A.Syntax            B.GrammarC.Morphology          D.Morpheme26. Themeaningcarriedbytheinflectionalmorphemeis_______.A.lexical           B.morphemicC.grammatical        D.semantic27. Boundmorphemesarethosethat___________.A.  havetobeusedindependentlyB. cannotbecombinedwithothermorphemesC. caneitherbefreeorboundD. havetobecombinedwithothermorphemes.28. ____modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.A.Prefixes      B.SuffixesC.Roots       D.Affixes29. _________areoftenthoughttobethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguagebythelinguists.A.Words    B.Morphemes  C.Phonemes   D.Sentences30. “-s”intheword“books”is _______.A.aderivativeaffix      B.astemC.aninflectionalaffix     D.arootIV.Definethefollowingterms: 31.morphology      32.inflectionalmorphology33.derivationalmorphology 34.morpheme35.freemorpheme     36.boundmorpheme37.root          38.affix39.prefix         40.suffix 41.derivation       42.CompoundingV.Answerthefollowingquestions:43. WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds?44. Discussthetypesofmorphemeswithexamples. SuggestedanswerstosupplementaryexercisesChapter3  MorphologyIV.Definethefollowingterms:31. Morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.32. inflectionalmorphology:Theinflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflections33.derivationalmorphology:Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.34. Morpheme:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.35. freemorpheme:Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithoth​ermorphemes.36.  boundmorpheme:Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindepen​dentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.37. Root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfal​thoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.38. Affix:Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories,whilederivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.39. Prefix:Prefixesoccuratthebegin​ningofaword.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,buttheyusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.         40. Suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.41. Derivation:Derivationisaprocessofwordformationbywhichderivativeaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.42. Compounding:Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.V.Anwserthefollowingquestions:43. WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds? Orthographicallyacompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalcu​lablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponents.Phonetically,thewordstressofacompoundusuallyfallsonthefirstelement.44.Discussthetypesofmorphemeswithexamples.  Freemorphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves,forexample,“book-”intheword“bookish”.  Boundmorphemes:Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformawordsuchas“-ish”in“bookish”.Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughithasaclearanddefinitemeaning,suchas“gene-”intheword“generate”.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityofnouns.Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateawordsuchas“mis-”intheword“misinform”.Derivationalaffixescanalsobedividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordsuchas“dis-”intheword“dislike”,whilesuffixesoccurattheendofawordsuchas“-less”intheword“friendless如有侵权请联系告知删除，感谢你们的配合！精品精品精品