2019年华南理工大学外国语学院870语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研冲刺五套模拟题

考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 1 页，共 41 页 目录 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研冲刺五套模 拟题（一） .............................................................................................................................. 2 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研冲刺五套模 拟题（二） .............................................................................................................................. 9 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研冲刺五套模 拟题（三） ............................................................................................................................ 17 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研冲刺五套模 拟题（四） ............................................................................................................................ 25 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研冲刺五套模 拟题（五） ............................................................................................................................ 32 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 2 页，共 41 页 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研 冲刺五套模拟题（一） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． subordination 【 答案 八年级地理上册填图题岩土工程勘察试题省略号的作用及举例应急救援安全知识车间5s试题及答案 】 Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head. 2． Open-class words 【答案】 Open-class words refer to words whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited and with the emergence of new ideas, inventions, and so on; new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. For example, nouns, verbs, and adjectives all belong to this class. 3． Homonymy 【答案】 In any language there are words which have the same linguistic form but are different in meaning. These words are called homonyms. For example, bank （of a river） , and bank （financial institution）. 4． Componential analysis 【答案】 It refers to a semantic approach which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. 5． Design features 【答案】 Design features: It refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. 6． Allomorph 【答案】 A morpheme may take various shapes or forms, and an allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, as in “cats” /s/, in “bags” /z/，in “matches” /iz/. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 3 页，共 41 页 7． Relational opposites 【答案】 This is a type of antonymy, in which the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. For example, “buy/sell” is such a pair. X buys something from Y means Y sells something from X. 8． Category 【答案】 Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 9． Locutionary Act, Illocutinary Act and Perlocutionary Act 【答案】 According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking. A locutionary act is the uttering of words, phrases, and clauses, which conveys meaning by giving out meaningful sounds. Therefore, when somebody says „„Morning‟‟，we can ask a question like “What did he do?‟‟，and the answer could be “He offered a greeting.” An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‟s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. Therefore, for the same example，we can say “He meant it as a greeting”. A perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance. Thus，by saying “Morning!” the speaker has made it clear that he wants to keep friendly relations with the hearer. 10．Gradable antonym 【答案】 Gradable antonym. Gradable antonyms are antonyms that are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. For example, cold and warm constitute a pair of gradable antonyms. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．Conversational implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意 in Chinese. 【答案】 We may summarize conversational implicature as a type of implied meaning. It could be inferred only by the dependence on the context of the utterance and shared knowledge between the speaker and listener. Illocutionary force, on the other hand, refers to speaker^ meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning, that is, the meaning the speaker wants to convey in a specific context. By an illocutionary force, we can say “What does he mean by saying that?” In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意 in Chinese. 12．What are the different views of input hypothesis and interaction hypothesis on discoursed contribution to language acquisition? 【答案】 Input hypothesis proposed by Krashen, holds that language acquisition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that are at “i + 1”（i. e. are a little more advanced than the current state of the learner‟s interlanguage） . In other words, language acquisition depends on comprehensible input. Interaction hypothesis by Michael Long, also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 4 页，共 41 页 13．Why do we say language is primarily vocal? 【答案】 Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is primarily vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or 6'new,5. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak （and listen ） before they write （and read） also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 14．Produce surface structures from the following deep structures without going through the process of transformations. （1）Neg she past work last week （2）Tag you past meet him （3）the students I pres be+ing help the students I （4）policemen past be+en beat John （5）Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON （6）SOMEONE past be+ing be+en beat Joseph hard （7）Q he past do SOMETHING （8）Imp you pres will wash you （9）[ Neg Mary past go to the bookstore] [Neg Lisa past go to the bookstore] （10）the girl [the girl pres be beautiful]pres be from China 【答案】（1） She didn't work last week. （2）You met him, didn't you? （3）The students are helping themselves. （4）The policemen were beaten by John. （5）Why is the professor angry? （6）He / She was being beaten hard by Joseph. （7 ） What did he do? （8）Wash yourself. （9）Mary didn‟t go to the bookstore. Lisa didn‟t go to the bookstore either. （10）The girl who is beautiful is from China. 15．What is your understanding of Systemic Functional Grammar? 【答案】 Systemic functional grammar, developed by M.A.K. Halliday, is a socially oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century. Systemic functional grammar is based on two facts: Language users are actually making choices in a set of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction. Language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study. One point to notice is that it takes clause as the basic unit. It consist of two inseparable 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 5 页，共 41 页 parts: systemic grammar and functional grammar. 16．What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning? 【答案】 A suprasegmental feature refers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of sound segment. The major suprasegmental features in English include word stress, sentence stress, tone, and intonation. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. 三、Essay-question 17．Is English a language that uses a phonetic alphabet system? Explain briefly why or why not with examples. 【答案】 The Phonetic Alphabet is a system of letters and symbols that are used to represent the individual sounds of a language. English is a language that uses a phonetic alphabet system because it is a phonographic language by nature. There are mainly three types of language concerning its writing system: ideographic language which uses symbols （ideograms） to represent whole words or concepts （ideas） , with Chinese as an example; syllabic language which word or concepts are represented by syllable, with Japanese syllabic system as an example; phonographic language which uses special alphabetic or other typographical characters to express the sounds of an actual spoken utterance in writing, with many European languages as examples. English uses alphabetic script to represent certain single type sound. For example, the sound which is written sh in English can be expressed by symbols of （ f ） ship; and the sound that is written in c can be expressed by the symbol of （k） cup. 18．Describe the process of language perception, comprehension and production. 【答案】 From the perspective of psycholinguistic analysis, language use in terms of perception, comprehension and production follows a certain pattern which involves the coordination of various language centers. When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke's area and transferred to Broca's area, which determines the details of their forms and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area which controls the vocal tract to physically articulate the words. When we hear something and try to comprehend it, the stimulus from the auditory cortex is transmitted to Wernicke's area, where it is then interpreted. When we perceive a visual image, a message is sent to the angular gyrus, where it is converted into a visual pattern. 19．Illustrate “Immediate Constituent Analysis”. 【答案】 The relation between a sentence and its component elements is generally referred to as the relation between a construction and its constituents, in which a very important notion is immediate constituent analysis, IC Analysis for short. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 6 页，共 41 页 The immediate constituent analysis may be defined as： the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups （or phrases ） , which are in turn analyzed in to the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram. The criterion for the immediate constituent analysis is substitutability: whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. For example: the IC structure for the sentence “The boy ate the apple.” is: 1） Tree diagram 20．The roles of Transformational-Generative linguistics and Functional linguistics in language teaching and learning. 【答案】 （1） In the framework of Transformational-Generative linguistics, language is not learnt by innate. While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar. Therefore, language learning is an activity of building and testing hypothesis. Although the influence of such a formal and abstract grammar remains limited in the field of language education, there are still various attempts to apply TG grammar to language teaching. In designing teaching materials, for example, sentence patterns with the same deep structure can be closely related, such as the active and the passive. Transformational rules may assist the teacher in the teaching of complex sentence construction. In the teaching of literature, TG grammar provides a new instrument for stylistic analysis. （2） The Functional linguistics sees language learning from a semantic-sociolinguistic perspective. In particular, Systemic-Functional linguistics, which was proposed by Halliday, sees the formal system of language as a realization of functions of language in use. Its scope is broader than that of formal linguistic theories. In the field of language teaching, it leads to the development of notion/function-based syllabuses, which have attracted increasing attention. 四、Synthesis 21．What are the important features of a task as defined in a task-based syllabus? 【答案】（1） A task should have a clear purpose. （2）A task should have some degree of resemblance to real-world events. （3）A task should involve information seeking, processing and conveying. （4）A task should involve the students in some modes of doing things. （5）A task should involve the meaning-focused use of language. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 7 页，共 41 页 （6）A task should end with a tangible product. 22．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often? 【答案】 There are many expressions such as to tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say, Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation. 23．What is the difference between Malinowski and Firth on context of situation? 【答案】 Malinowski distinguished three types of context of situation: situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity, narrative situations, and phatic situations. Firth defined the context of situation as including the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment. Recognising that sentences can vary infinitely, Firth used the notion of “typical context of situation”， meaning that social situations determine the social roles participants are obliged to play; since the total number of typical contexts of situation they will encounter is finite, the total number of social roles is also finite. He put forward the idea that in analysing a typical context of situation, one has to take into consideration both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text. 24．Analyse the poem below from the semantic point of view, taking a special account of sense relations. Coloured Dear White Fells You White Fella Couple things you should know When you bom, you pink When I bom, I black Whenyou grow up, you white When I grow up, I black Whenyou go in sun, you red When I go in sun, I black Whenyou cold, you blue When I cold, I black Whenyou seared, you yellow When I scared, I black When you sick, you green When I sick, I black And when you die you grey And when I die-I still black And you have the cheek To call me coloured? 【答案】 This poem is about the use of the word “coloured”. The author cleverly makes use of “coloured” in the sense of “different colours” to oppose the practive to refer to black people as “coloured”. This shows from another point of view that “coloured” is not a superordinate to “red”, “green”, “yellow”，etc. 25．Describe the three categories of conceptual metaphors. 【答案】 Lakoff and Johonson （1980） classify conceptual metaphors into three categories: ontological metaphors, structural metaphors and orientational metaphors. On tological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Ontological metaphors can serve various purposes. By ontological metaphors we give bounded surfaces to less clearly discrete entities （mountains, hedges, street comers） and categorize events, actions and states as substances. In ontological metaphors it is our experiences of interacting with 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 8 页，共 41 页 physical bounded bodies which provide the basis for categorizing events, activities, ideas etc., as entities and substances. Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. This means that structural metaphors are grounded in our experience. Structural metaphors imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in our experience. The orientational metaphors are grounded in an experiential basis, which link together the two parts of the metaphor. The link verb “is”，part of the metaphor, should be seen as the link of two different co-occurring experiences. For example, MORE IS UP. This metaphor is grounded in the co-occurrence of two different kinds of experiences: adding more of a substance and perceiving the level of the substance rise. Orientational metaphors are based on human physical and cultural experience. For example, in some cultures the future is in front of us, whereas in others it is in back of us. Now let us study some orientational metaphors and give a brief hint about how each metaphorical concept might have arisen from human physical and cultural experience. 26．There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them? 【答案】 Ethnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state （such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness ） vary from individual to individual. 27．The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic or diachrenic orientation just from the titles? （1）English Examined, Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue. （2）Protean Shape : A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage. （3）Pejorative Sense Development in English. （4）The Categories end Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation. （5）Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. 【答案】 Synchronic:（2），（4），（5）. Diachronic:（1），（3）. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 9 页，共 41 页 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研 冲刺五套模拟题（二） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． bound root 【答案】 Bound root refers to the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, and this base form could not occur alone, such as “-ceive” in “receive”. 2． Coarticulation 【答案】 Coarticulation refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, as in lamb, when a is followed by m, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of a so that it is ready for the following nasal. When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is preservative coarticulation. 3． Surface structure 【答案】 It is a term used in generative grammar to refer to the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear. For instance, “John is easy to please.” and “John is eager to please.” are two sentences with the same surface structure. 4． Entailment 【答案】 It refers to the relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other. If X is true, Y is necessarily true，and if X is false, Y may be true or false. For example, the sentence “He has been to France” entails “He has been to Europe”. 5． basic level category 【答案】 Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category. 6． IC analysis 【答案】 IC analysis: IC analysis （immediate constituent analysis） refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups （or phrases ） ,which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. In practice, for the sake of convenience, we usually stop at the level of word. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 10 页，共 41 页 7． computational linguistics 【答案】 Computational linguistics is a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language, h includes programmed instruction, speech synthesis and recognition, automatic translation, and computer mediated communication. 8． Distinctive features of speech sounds 【答案】 The distinctive feature is a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another. For example, “voicing” is a distinctive feature, since it plays an important role in distinguishing obstruents in English. 9． Linguistic relativity 【答案】 This is one of two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. It states that similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world is. For example, not every language has the same set of words for the colors; in Spanish there is no word that corresponds to the English meaning of “blue”. 10．Textual function 【答案】 Textual function: The textual function is one of the three meta-functions language is composed of. It refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．The following is a statement by a Japanese businessman: “You buy in your own language, but you sell in your customer’s language.” How do you understand it? 【答案】 This reflects some features of pidgin which is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it id used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. And also, it reflects the tendency of intercultural communication from the aspect of language. 12．What is free variation? 【答案】 Free variation is a linguistic term used both in phonology and sociolinguistics. In phonology, if two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast. For example，the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds are said to be in “free variation”. For instance，both either and direction are pronounced differently in British English and American English without changing their meaning, which are often caused by the regional differences. 13．What are the three important points of the Prague School? 【答案】 The Prague School has three points of special importance, First, it stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. Second, it emphasised the systemic character of language, arguing that no element of any language can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated if viewed in isolation. In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition. Third, it looked on language as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 11 页，共 41 页 14．Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. 【答案】 As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communication functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in England accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and considered more correct than without it. 15．How are affixes classified? 【答案】 Considering the free and bound morpheme, affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme, so it is naturally bound. Depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word, affixes are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix. For examples, “para-” as prefix， “-tion” as suffix, and “-bloomingly-” in word “abso-bloomingly-luty” as infix. Affix can also be classified depending on the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes. The former often only add a minute grammatical function to the stem and do not change the word class of the word they attach to; while the latter are very productive in making new words and often change the lexical meaning. For instances, “-s” in words “toys”，“walks” and “John‟s” is inflectional affixes, while “-tion” is a derivational affix in word “recitation”. 16．Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two. 【答案】 By definition, phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including the production of speech, while phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages. Phonetics is the study of actual sounds, that is, the analysis and modeling the speech signal; phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns in different languages or within a language. In this sense, phonetics is concrete, while phonology is abstract. What phonetics studies is the speech sound, namely phone, what phonology studies is phoneme. 三、Essay-question 17．What is the difference between pidgins and creoles? 【答案】 A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. The term is believed to have originated from the pronunciation of the English word„„business‟‟in Chinese Pidgin English. Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know. Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 12 页，共 41 页 by the loss of inflections，gender and case. The“simplified‟‟variety performs its functions as trading and employment. When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole. The structure of the original pidgin is expanded to enable it to fulfill its new functions. The vocabulary is vastly enriched, and new syntactic-semantic concepts developed. Notable examples of Creole are the English-based Creole of Jamaica, and the French-based Creole of Haiti. 18．What kind of linguistic phenomenon can you identify in the following dialogue? Define, analize and explain the phenomenon. 甲：上车请买票。 乙：三张天安门。 甲：您拿好。 【答案】 This conversation consists of the linguistic phenomenon which is called the “Cooperative Principle”，proposed and formulated by P. Grice, based on such a pragmatic hypothesis that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle: The maxim of quantity a）Make your contribution as informative as is required （for the current purpose of the exchange）. b）Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of quality a）Do not say what you believe to be false. b）Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. The maxim of relation Be relevant. The maxim of manner a）Avoid obscurity of expression. b）Avoid ambiguity. c）Be brief （avoid unnecessary prolixity） • d）Be orderly. There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in this conversation, the speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like “ 三张天安门” in response to a question. Although it is typically “more informative than is required” in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said （i.e. the speaker knows the answer）. This typical reaction （i. e. there must be something “special” here） of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature. When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 13 页，共 41 页 19．Consider the following sentence, and then, answer questions （1） to （3） . The boy saw the man with the telescope. （1）Is this sentence ambiguous? If so, describe the ambiguity briefly in your own words. （2）Draw the constituent structure trees for each possible interpretation. （3）What can be known about tree diagrams from （1） and （2） ? 【答案】（1） Yes, this is an ambiguous sentence. This is a structurally ambiguous sentence, which can be rewritten in two ways as follows: a.The boy saw the man. The man had a telescope. b.Using the telescope, the boy saw the man. （2） Since the sentence is an ambiguous one, which has two ways of interpretation, there are two ways of drawing constituent structure trees for it. （3） Tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure analysis. In addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently, can truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 20．Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations? 【答案】 In Saussure‟s view, language is a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts: “signified” （concept） and “signifier”（sound image） . And the relationship between these two parts is arbitrary. Therefore the linguist cannot attempt to explain individual signs in a piecemeal fashion. Instead he must try to find the value of a sign from its relations to others, or rather, its position in the system. The two principal types of relations which Saussure identified are Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations. The syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 14 页，共 41 页 elements which are all present. The paradigmatic （or associative） relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. They can substitute for each other without violating syntactic rules. The syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations together, like the two axes of a coordinate, determine the identity of a linguistic sign. Syntagms and paradigms provide a structural context within which signs make sense; they are the structural forms through which signs are organized into codes. 四、Synthesis 21．Do you know anything about the British poet Philip Larkin? 【答案】 Philip Larkin （1922—1985） was the most representative and highly regarded of the poets who gave expression to a clipped, antiromantic sensibility prevalent in English verse in the 1950s. He was educated at Oxford University. （Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature, 1995） 22．Find the sources of the following blends. In cases where the dictionary does not provide the answer, your own ingenuity will be your guide. （a） bash （b） smash （c） glimmer （d） flimmer （e） clash （f） flare （g） brunch （h） motel （i） transistor （j） medicare （k） workaholic （1） spam （m） telethon （n） aerobicise （o） chunnel （p） chortle （q） bit （r） modem （s） guestimate （t） threepeat 【答案】（a）bat and mash （b）smack and mash （c）gleam and shimmer （d）flame and glimmer （e）clap and crash （f）flame and glare （g）breakfast and lunch （h）motor and hotel （i）transfer and resistor （j）medical and care （k）work and alcoholic （1）spiced and ham （m） telephone and marathon （n） aerobics and exercise （o） channel and tunnel （p） chuckle and snort （q） binary and digit （r） modulator and demodulator （s） guess and estimate （ t ） three and repeat 23．What is the tradition of the London School? 【答案】 The London School has a tradition of laying stress on the functions of language and attaching great importance to contexts of situation and the system aspect of language. It is these features that have made this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. It is an important and admirable part of the London School tradition to believe that different types of linguistic description may be appropriate for different purposes. 24．What is Case Grammar? 【答案】 Case Grammar is a type of generative approach that stresses the semantic relationship of elements in a sentence. This grammar takes the verb as the most important part of the sentence, marking the relationships between the verb with various noun phrases as “cases”. Fillmore‟s argument is based on the assumptions that syntax should be central in the determination 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 15 页，共 41 页 of case and that covert categories are important. The various ways in which cases occur in simple sentences define sentence types and verb types of a language. Case Grammar shows clear semantic relevance of notions such as agency, causation, location, advantage tosomeone, etc. These are easily identifiable across languages, and are held by many psychologists to play an important part in child language acquisition. 25．姜望琪（1991: 79） claims that “To some extent, we can say that any two words of the same part of speech may become antonyms, as long as the meaning difference between them is what needs to be emphasized in the particular context” He uses the two sentences below as examples. What do you think of the claim? You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one. He‟s no statesman, but a mere politician. 【答案】 This is a reasonable claim. As the author said in the paper, “man” can be the antonym of “woman”，but it can also be the antonym of “boy” in a situation when the age difference is important. When the difference between a man and an animal is important，“man” can also be the antonym of “dog”. And when the difference between sometiiing animate and something inanimate is important，then “man” can even be the antonym of “stone”. In the extreme cases， so-called synonyms may also become antonyms, for example，“You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one‟‟，“He，s no statesman, but a mere politician”. 26．The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the ''guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? Whafs your comment on them? （1）Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind. （2）colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people. （3）civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world. 【答案】 They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti- sexist advocators speak and write. 27．Explain the main characteristics of subjects in English. 【答案】 The grammatical category “subject” in different language possesses different characteristics, in English, “subject” may have the following characteristics A.Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in a statement such as uSally collects stamps'' B.Pronoun forms: The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject. This form is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: He loves me. I love him. We threw stones at them. They threw stones at us. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 16 页，共 41 页 C.Agreement with verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular. However, the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb: She angers him. They anger him. She angers them. D.Content questions: if the subject is replaced by a question word （who or what） , the rest of the sentence remains unchanged; as in （ b） But when any other element of the sentence is replacedbyaquestionword,an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject. If the basic sentence does not contain an auxiliaryverb,we mustinsert did or do （es） immediately after the question word, as in （d, e） （a）John stole/would steal Mrs. Thateher's picture from the British Council （b）Who stole/would steal Mrs. Thatcher s picture from the British Council? （c）What would John steal，if he had the chance? （d）What did John steal from the British Council? （e）Where did John steal Mrs. Thatcher s picture from? E.Tag question: A TAG QUESTION is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence: John loves Mary，doesn‟t he? 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 17 页，共 41 页 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研 冲刺五套模拟题（三） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Glottal Stop 【答案】 Vocal tract is composed of oral cavity, nasal cavity and pharynx. When the vocal folds are totally closed, no air can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop. 2． Concord （or: Agreement） 【答案】 It may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category （or categories ） . For example, the syntactic relationship between that girl and she in the following dialogue: A: Who is that girl? B: Oh, she is my sister. 3． Displacement 【答案】 Language can be used to refer to what is present, what is absent, what happens at present, what happened in the past, what will happen in the future or what happens in a far-away place. This property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place. For example, we can talk about Sapir, who is already dead; we can even talk about next week, which is in the future. 4． cohort model 【答案】 The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input- the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner. 5． Performatives 【答案】 Performatives are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state. They cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is part of, the doing an action. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives. 6． Bound morpheme 【答案】 Bound morphemes refer to those morphemes that can not occur alone and must appear with at least another morpheme. For example, in the word “careless”，“-less” is a bound morpheme since it could not occur by itself as a word. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 18 页，共 41 页 7． Transformational-Generative grammar 【答案】 Transformational-generative grammar is proposed by Noam Chomsky. He postulated a syntactic base of language （called deep structure） , which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of （possibly universal） rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that is identical to an actual sentence of a language, after the mediating of a series of rules （called transformations ） that act upon the deep structures. 8． Conversational implicature 【答案】 Conversational implicature refers to a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. For example, the implicature of He is a tiger could probably be he has some characteristics of a tiger. 9． Metonymy 【答案】 Metonymy is a figure of speech used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by 也 e name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept. For instance, “Washington”，as the capital of the United States, can be used as a metonym （an instance of metonymy） for the United States government. 10．Speech and thought presentation 【答案】 Speech and thought presentation: These two terms are used for the language in fiction, referring to the presenting forms for indicating the narrator‟s speech or thought. The speech presentation may have the following four possibilities: direct speech, indirect speech, narrator‟s representation of speech acts, and narrator‟s representation of speech. The Thought presentation can also be categorized into: narrator‟s representation of thought, narrator‟s representation of thought acts, indirect thought, free indirect thought, and direct thought. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．What is a syntactic category? 【答案】 A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases in a language which share a significant number of common characteristics. The classification is based on similar structure and sameness of distribution （the structural relationships between these elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure） , and not on meaning. There are major and minor syntactic categories: major categories include all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, and word-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V; while minor categories are categories that do not project to a phrasal level such as the Yes-No question markers. More specifically, a syntactic category also refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender and case; and the categories of the verb, for example, include tense, aspect and voice, etc. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 19 页，共 41 页 12．What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of the speech act theory? 【答案】 When a speaker is using indirect language, he is performing two speech acts simultaneously: one is the primary speech act and the other is the second speech act. The primary one is the speaker's goal of communication and the second one is the means by which he achieves his goal. 13．What is the purpose of studying language and mind? 【答案】 The study of language and mind aims to model the workings of the mind in relation to language; for example, it helps explain how the language production and perception is achieved. Since structures and connections in the mind are inevitably unobservable, researchers put forward hypotheses based on fragmentary clues. The label most usually given to the study of “language and mind” is psycholinguistics，a term which is often perceived as being trendy. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 14．plowed 14. climbed 15. singed 16. hanged 【答案】 15．What is reference? 【答案】 Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between linguistic elements and non-linguistic world of experience. Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a word or phrase and an entity in the external world. For example, the word tree refers to the object “tree”. Reference in its narrower sense is the relationship between a word or phrase and a specific object, e.g. a particular tree or a particular animal. For example, Peter's horse would refer to a horse which is owned, ridden by, or in some way associated with Peter. 16．How well, in your opinion, does the word “communication” represent the function of human language? 【答案】 We use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc. 三、Essay-question 17．What is characteristic of TG grammar? 【答案】 Chomsky‟s TG grammar has the following features. First, Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles. Secondly, Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Thirdly, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker^ tacit knowledge. They seldom use what native speakers say; they rely on their own intuition. Fourthly, Chomsky‟s methodology is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels:（1） 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 20 页，共 41 页 The linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure—a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars for particular languages. （2） Each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory. Finally, Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology. 18．How many types of data analysis have been employed in language acquisition research? How are these types of data analysis significant in SLA research? 【答案】 Four types of data analysis have been employed. They are contrastive analysis，error analysis, performance analysis, and discourse analysis. Contrastive analysis （CA） systematically compares native languages and target languages to find the interference of native language when acquiring target languages. It has a close relationship with behaviourism. Although contrastive analysis was faced with a downfall as behaviorism was challenged, as a methodological option it was not abandoned. Error analysis （EA） studies and analyzes the errors made by L2 learners and suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner‟s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as overgeneralization and simplification of rules. Error analysis also fell into disfavor for （1） its narrowness——focusing on errors only and having difficulty in identifying the unitary source of an error, and （2） its failure to account for all the areas of the SL in which learners have difficulty. Nevertheless error analysis was not doomed to death rather incorporated into performance analysis. Performance analysis （PA） is an analysis of the learners5 interlanguage performance. It is superior to error analysis in that it is not limited to analyzing the errors learners commit. Also like its predecessors, however, performance analysis was found to be too limiting; it did not take the input to the learner into consideration. And this limitation led to the emergence of discourse analysis. Discourse analysis （DA） recognizes the need to examine not only the leamer?s performance but also the input to the learner. Another quality of discourse analysis applied to SLA is that researchers are concerned not only with how IL forms evolve, but how learners learn how to use the forms appropriately for a particular discourse function as well. 19．Disambiguate the following sentences, using the tree diagram with labels or analyzing their syntactic structures. （1）Times flies like an arrow. （2）We got down from the duck. （3）Old men and women will be served first. （4）John passed the hammer and saw through the window. （5）Who would you like to visit? 【答案】（1） 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 21 页，共 41 页 （2） （a）The word “down” could be seen as an adverbial, which means “from the higher position to a lower one”. （b）The word “down” could be also seen as a noun, which means “the fluffy feathers forming the first plumage of a young bird”. （3） （4） （5） （a）“Who” could be interpreted as the direct object of the verbal group “would like”. Therefore, the answer to this question could be “I would like John to visit”. （b）“Who” could also be interpreted as the direct object of the verb “visit”. Thus, the answer to this question could be “I would like to visit John”. 20．Krashen’s Input Hypothesis and Language Learning. 【答案】 Input hypothesis claims that “Human acquire language in only one way~~by understanding messages or by receiving 'comprehensible input,,?. According to Krashen, input that is useful for L2 acquisition must be neither too difficult nor too easy to understand and ought to be tuned just right to learner 9s current level, represented as i. In the course of acquiring the L2, learners progress from one level to another. The next level is called +Y\ For i +1 to occur, the input has to be slightly beyond the level at which learners are well proficient. The gap between i and / +1 is bridged by comprehensible input, which is the information drawn from the context and previous experience. Comprehensible input is considered both necessary and sufficient for L2 acquisition to occur and output 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 22 页，共 41 页 plays little role. In other words, L2 learning takes place because the data to which learners are exposed contain comprehensible input. According to Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, there are two ways to approach language learning: acquisition and learning. Acquisition helps us produce natural, rapid, and fluent speech. Learning, which is a conscious study of form, helps us edit this speech. In other words, when we learn something it won't help us produce fluent communication, but it will help us monitor our communication and correct minor errors. It can only occur if three conditions are fulfilled: The performer has to have enough time; the performer has to be thinking about correctness and the performer has to know the rule. Learners will be most likely to use the Monitor in formal exam situations, where their attention has been drawn to linguistic form，and where they have enough time. If all these conditions are fulfilled, the Monitor may be used, but may be used inaccurately. 四、Synthesis 21．Define the following terms. （1）design features （2）function （3）synchronic （4）diachronic （5）prescriptive （6） descriptive （7）arbitrariness （8）duality （9）displacement （10）phatic communion （11）metalanguage （12）macrolinguistics （13）competence （14）performance （15）langue （16）parole 【答案】 （1）the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. （2） the role language plays in communication （e. g. to express ideas, attitudes） or in particular social situations （e. g. religious, legal）. （3）said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “ point” in time. （4）said of the study of development of language and languages over time. （5） to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. （6）to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. （7）the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer. （8） the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units （e. g. words） and meaningless segments （e. g. sounds, letters）. （9） the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker s immediate situation. （10）said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact. （11） a language used for talking about language （12） a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc. （13）unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. （14）the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. （15）the language system shared by a „„ speech community”. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 23 页，共 41 页 （16）the concrete utterances of a speaker. 22．Combine the following pairs of sentences. Make the second sentence of each pair into a relative clause, and then embed it into the first. （a）The comet appears every twenty years. Dr. Okada discovered the comet. （b）Everyone respected the quarterback. The quarterback refused to give up. （c）The most valuable experiences were small ones. I had the experiences on my trip to Europe. （d）Children will probably become abusers of drugs or alcohol. Children‟s parents abuse alcohol. （e）Many nations are restricting emissions of noxious gases. The noxious gases threaten the atmosphere. 【答案】（a） The comet that Dr. Okada discovered appears every twenty years. （b）Everyone respected the quarterback who refused to give up. （c）The most valuable experiences that ] had on my trip to Europe were small ones. （d）Children whose parents abuse alcohol will probably become abusers of drugs or alcohol. （e）Many nations are restricting emissions of noxious gases which threaten the atmosphere. 23．In the text, we did not mention antonyms like ''friendly: unfriendly,,? "honest: dishonesf5, ''normal: abnormal ”, ''frequent; infrequent,,? ''logical; illogicar, and ''responsible: irresponsible,^ Which type of antonymy do they belong to? 【答案】 In terms of etymology, they may all belong to the complementary type. But in practice, some are gradable now, especially “friendly: unfriendly”. 24．What is the discourse-based view of language teaching? 【答案】 The essential point of the discourse-based view of language takes into account the fact that linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. These patterns of language extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching （McCarthy and Carter, 1994: 1） . The discourse-based view of language focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates. Accordingly, the discourse-based view of language teaching aims at developing discourse competence. 25．On 14 January, 1993, US President-elect Bill Clinton spoke to journalists in the wake of rumours that he might go back on some of his promises made during the electoral campaign. When cornered by some insistent journalists, he came up with the following statement. I think it would be foolish for the President of the United States, for any President of the United States, not to respond to changing circumstances. Every President of the United States, as far as I know, and particularly those who have done a good job, have known how to respond to changing circumstances. It would clearly be foolish for a President of the United States to do otherwise. Some linguists argue that campaign speeches, like all political speeches, are one of the occasions on which the CP and its maxims are suspended, do you agree? Can you think of any other similar occasion? 【答案】 Yes, this is an occasion on which the CP and its maxims are suspended. When .he formulated his CP, Grice qualified it with expressions like “normally”，“characteristically” and “ceteris paribus”. In other words, the CP and its maxims are not meant to be observed in all situations. Alternatively, we may say that assumptions like uThe speaker believes in what he says” are implicatures, 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 24 页，共 41 页 which will be cancelled in situations where there are indications to the contrary. Similar occasions include funeral orations, poetry writing, and joking. 26．What does each of the following acronyms and numbers stand for? 【答案】 27．Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modem linguistics? 【答案】 Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language. He believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, signs must be part of a system of signs, called conventions. He held that the sign is the union of a form （signifier） and an idea （signified） , and it is the central fact of language. By providing answers to questions concerning many aspects of language, Saussure made clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. His ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 25 页，共 41 页 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研 冲刺五套模拟题（四） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． distinctive features 【答案】 a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people. 2． figure-ground alignment 【答案】 Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground. 3． Functional Sentence Perspective （FSP） 【答案】 It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to art analysis of utterances （or texts） in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. 4． Government 【答案】 Government is another type of control over the forms of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the forms of others in terms of certain category. In English, for example, the pronoun after a verb or a preposition should be in the object form as in She gave him a book. She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or the preposition, determines, or governs, the form of the pronoun after it. 5． CMC 【答案】 It is computer-mediated communication, distinguished by its focus on language and language use in computer networked environments, and by its use of methods of discourse analysis to address that focus. 6． Lingua franca 【答案】 It is language that is used for communication between different groups of people, each speaking a different language, lhe lingua franca could be an internationally used language of communication （e. g. English） , it could be the native language of one of the groups, or it could a language which is not spoken natively by any of the groups but has a simplified sentence structure and vocabulary and is often a mixture of two or more languages. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 26 页，共 41 页 7． Diglossia 【答案】 When two languages or language varieties exist together in a community and each one is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia. Usually, the more standard variety can be called the high variety or H-variety, which is used in government, the media, education, and for religious services. The other one is usually a non-prestige variety, the low variety or L-variety used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc. 8． Lexical word 【答案】 Lexical word, lexical words are also called content words, referring to those which have lexical meanings, that is, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 9． Applied linguistics 【答案】 It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning. 10．Stem 【答案】 A stem is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, “friend-” in friends,and “friendship-” in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．How is the illocutionary act different from the perlocutionary act? 【答案】 An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker^ intention; it is the act performed in saying something. Thus, if someone says “Morning”，we can ask questions like “What did he mean?” and the answer could be “He offered a greeting.” A perlocutionary act, however, is the effect of the utterance. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, and so on. Therefore，the perlocutionary act of the saying “Morning” could be to keep friendly relations with the hearer. 12．In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language? 【答案】（1） The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age. （2）The standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language; usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation‟s political and commercial center. For example, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually, the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 27 页，共 41 页 （3）The standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; imposed from above the range of regional dialects. （4）The standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purpose as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions. 13．What are the three important points of the Prague School? 【答案】 The three important points developed in Prague School are:（a） It was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation but no rigid theoretical barrier is erected to separate diachronic study, （b） There was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. （ c ） Language was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number essential functions or tasks for the community using it. 14．What are theme and rheme? 【答案】 Some linguists, who devoted considerable attention to problems of analyzing sentences from a functional point of view, believe that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer——it is their starting point, the ground on which they meet. This is called the theme. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. This is called the rheme. For example, in the sentence The man is coming, The man is the theme, and is coming is the rheme. 15．What are the major concerns of pragmatics? 【答案】 Pragmatics is the study of the language in use. It is mainly about how speakers use language appropriately and effectively in accordance with a given context. It is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker （or writer） and interpreted by a listener （or reader） . It has more to do with participants of communication and context in which communication takes place. Hence the study of speaker meaning, that of contextual meaning, of what is unsaid but communicated. 16．thrived 10. breathed 11. turned 12. hissed 【答案】 三、Essay-question 17．In interpreting utterances such as（1）and（2），the hearer generally treats the events described in the two sentences in each group as causally related even though such relationship is not encoded in the meanings of the sentences. That is . the hearer tends to think that Helen fell on the ground because of Torn's pushing and that the vase broke because it was dropped. Explain why. （1）Tom pushed Helen. Helen fell on the ground. （2）Peter dropped the vase. It broke. 【答案】 The phenomenon described can be illustrated by the theory of cohesion and coherence in discourse analysis, especially the conjunctive kind of cohesive relation. Text processing requires inferences for establishing coherence between successive sentences. The achievement of coherence partly relies on the cohesive relationships within and between the sentences. Cohesion occurs where the 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 28 页，共 41 页 interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another. It is realized partly through grammatical device and partly through lexical cohesion. Conjunction is one of the grammatically cohesive relations. It is based on the assumption that there are forms of systematic relationships between sentences in the linguistic system. Conjunction can be realized by some conjunctive words and some adverbs, such as so, but, furthermore, and so on. But in fact, the conjunctive relation between the discourses need not be realized by conjunctive words, as can be seen in these two examples. Yet it is not enough for the text to have connections between elements, there is also the coherence which distinguishes connected texts which make sense from those which do not. It enables people to make sense of what they read and hear, and then try to arrive at an interpretation which is in line with their experience of the way the world is. In fact, our ability to make sense of what we read is probably only a small part of that general ability we have to make sense of what we experience or perceive in the world. Therefore, by the coherence which helps us to connect the discourse with the world we experience, we the hearers will tend to make the discourse fit some situation which could accommodate all the details, and just as in the two examples, the causal conjunctive relations are established. 18．Read the following quote from Chomsky. What do you think about Chomsky^ criticism and the revival of corpus linguistics? It seems clear that the description which is of greatest psychological relevance is the account of competence, not that of performance, for anyone concerned with intellectual processes, or any question that goes beyond mere data arranging, it is the question of competence that is fundamental. ... These rather obvious comments apply directly to study of language, child or adult. This it is absurd to attempt to construct a grammar that describes observed linguistic behaviour directly，…a direct record—an actual corpus—is almost useless as it stands, for linguistic analysis of any but the most superficial kind. ... 【答案】 Regarding linguistics as a branch of psychology, Chomsky insisted that what should be studied is linguistic competence, not performance. As he has claimed, the description of language performance only tells what is there, and is very inadequate in telling why language performs in the way as it does, or rather, how the intellectual processes affects it. What＇s more, language performance is more than often degenerated; there are false statements, hesitations, and so on. Therefore, the corpus linguistics which is based on the language performance is somewhat distorted from the goal of linguistics. Because, according to Chomsky, what linguistics is aimed for, should be the discovering of the constants, the general principle which all languages are constructed and operated as systems of communication in societies in which they are used. Therefore, he suggested the construction of universal grammar, which is the ideal knowledge of language, is what linguists should be concerned with, and the postulation of grammar based on the observed behavior is also a distortion. 19．The British linguist F.R. Palmer argues that 44there is no absolute distinction between gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms.” Do you believe so? Support your view with examples. 【答案】 I would prefer not to agree with this argument that there is no absolute distinction between gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms. The common way to distinguish gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms could be to see the forms they could occur: adjective gradable antonyms could be modified by “very”，and could have comparative forms and superlative forms; while the complementary counterparts could not. For example, we could say “very warm”, “warmer”, but we could not say “very absent” or “more absent” （absent here is opposed to present）. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 29 页，共 41 页 The expressions with “very” or “more” modifying complementary antonyms are in fact not true comparatives and have a clear indication of either this one or the other one in the pair of complementary antonyms. For example, expression like “He is more dead than alive” actually means “It is more correct to say that he is dead than to say he is alive”. And this sentence could only be used when he is still alive; after all, we do not say someone is more dead than other. 20．How many semantic relations are there among sentences? Give examples. 【答案】 There are basically six: （1）Synonymy, e.g. X: “He was a bachelor all his life." Y: “He never married all his life." X is synonymous with Y. （2）Inconsistence, e.g. X: “Mark is married." Y: “Mark is a bachelor.” X is inconsistent with Y. （3）Entailment，e.g. X: “Mark married a blonde heiress:”Y: “Mark married a blonde.” X entails Y. （4）Presupposition, e.g. X: ''John's bike needs repairing^ Y: '"John has a bike." X presupposes Y. （5）Contradiction, e. g. X: '"My unmarried aunt is married to a bachelor.” X is a contradiction. （6）Anomaly, e.g. X: "'The blackboard has a bad temper.” X is semantically anomalous. 四、Synthesis 21．What are the differences between errors and mistakes? Can you identify the errors and mistakes in the sentences below? （1）I bought in Japan. （2）These dog are big, （3）He was arrived early. （4）Joe doesn‟t likes it. （5）Why didn‟t you came to school. （6）I doesn‟t know how. （7）She has been smoking less, isn‟t it? （8）I failed from the bike. （9）I no have it. （10）Why they look at each other‟ （11）I know what is that. （12）Although he was ill, but he still came. （13）I go to the university yesterday. （14）Teacher said he is right. 【答案】 Errors usually arise from the learner‟s lack of knowledge; it represents a lack of competence. In other words, the learner does not know the right form or is unable to use language 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 30 页，共 41 页 correctly. Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence. In other words, the learner has already learned the knowledge or skill but simply fails to function correctly due to lack of attention or other factors. 22．What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies? 【答案】 A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To collie to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others,... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. （Noam Chomsky: Reflectionson Language. 1975:4） It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”； and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. （M. A, K, Halliday. 1970: 142） The first quote shows children＇s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user＇s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language. 23．What do you think about the knowledge-based approach? 【答案】 Three types of knowledge are needed for the improvement of MT system, namely, linguistic knowledge independent of context （semantics） , linguisitic knowledge that relates to context （pragmatics） , and common sense/real world knowledge （nonliguistic） . The first two problems are language-oriented but a system containing a bilingual dictionary and knowledge of grammar does not guarantee good quality translation. What is more, it is the lack of real world language on the part of computers that baffles the researchers. Computers do not understand the relationships things have with each other or how things fit together. 24．Read the following passage from Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll, and discuss the meaning of mean in it. “Don‟t stand chattering to yourself like that,” Humpty Dumpty said, looking at her for the first time, “hut tell me your name and your business. “6My name is Alice, but—” “It‟s a stupid name enough!!’ Humpty Dumpty interrupted impatiently. “What does it mean?” a name mean something?” Alice asked doubtfully. “Of course it must,” Humpty Dumpty said with a short laugh: ^my name means the shape I am—and a handsome shape it is, too. With a name like yours, you might be any shape, almost”. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 31 页，共 41 页 【答案】 “This “mean” means “refer to”. This is the way in which “mean” is used in the referential theory of meaning. 25．Do the following according the requirements. （a）Write out the synonyms of the following words: youth; automobilev; remember; purchaser vacation; big （b）Give the antonyms of the following words, and point out in which aspect the two of each pair are opposite: dark, boy, hot, go （c）Provide two or more related meanings for the following： bright, to glare, a deposit, plane 【答案】 （a） youth （adolescent） ; automobile （ear） ; remember （recall） ; purchase （buy） ; vacation （holidays）; big （large） （b） dark （light: with respect to brightness） boy （girl: with respect to sex） hot （cold: with respect to temperature） go （come: with respect to direction） （c）bright （a. shining; b. intelligent） to glare （a. to shine intensely; b. to stare angrily） a deposit （a. minerals in the earth; b. money in the bank） plane （a. a flying vehicle; b. a flat surface） 26．Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same, one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”， which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other? 【答案】 It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning. 27．Transcribe the following sentences into normal orthography. 【答案】 1） On a clear day you can see for miles. 2）Some people think that first impressions count for a lot. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 32 页，共 41 页 2019 年华南理工大学外国语学院 870 语言学和英美文学基础知识之语言学教程考研 冲刺五套模拟题（五） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Lexical relations 【答案】 There are several types of lexical relations concerning the sense of the words. Those are synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, polysemy, homonymy, and so on. （a） Synonymy refers to the sameness relation; “autum”, and “full” are synonyms, for example, （b） Antonymy refers to the oppositeness relation; for example, “buy” and “sell” are antonyms, （c） Hyponymy refers to the inclusiveness relation; for example, “apple” is a hyponym of “fruit”, （d） Polysemy means one word that has more than one related meaning，and “bank”，as an example, is a polysemous word. （e） Homonymy refers to the relation of two different words which are identical either in sound, or spelling, or both, such as “bow” （bau） and “bow” （bəu）. 2． Assimilation 【答案】 It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. It is often used synonymously with coarticulation. Nasalization, dentalization and， velarization are all instances of assimilation. There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. For example, in “mink”，“n”，which is originally pronounced as will be velarized by the following “k”/k/，and therefore the word will be pronounced as 3． Interlanguage 【答案】 It refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. It‟s a language system between the target language and the learner‟s native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not mere translation from the learner^ native language. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like “to touch the society”. 4． Syllable 【答案】 Syllable: It refers to a unit of spoken language that is bigger than a speech sound. It consists of one or more vowel sounds alone or of a syllabic consonant alone or of either with one or more consonant sounds preceding or following. 5． CAI and CAL 【答案】 Computer-assisted instruction （CAI） means the use of a computer in a teaching program. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 33 页，共 41 页 This includes: a. A teaching program which is presented by a computer in a sequence. The student responds on the computer, and the computer indicates whether the responses are correct or incorrect. b. The use of computers to monitor student progress, to direct students into appropriate lessons, material, etc. This is also called computer-managed instruction. Parallel to CAI, there is CAL （Computer-Assistant Learning ） . The former aims at seeing educational problems on the part of the teacher, whereas the latter emphasizes the use of a computer in both teaching and learning in order to help the learner achieve educational objectives. The first kind of CAL programs which were developed reflected principles similar to programmed instruction. The computer leads the student through learning task step-by-step, asking questions to check comprehension. Depending on the studenfs response, the computer gives the student further practice or progresses to new material （see branching ）. In more recent CAL courseware students are able to interact with the computer and perform higher-level tasks while exploring a subject or problem. 6． Phonetics 【答案】 Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics. 7． Presupposition 【答案】 A presupposition is a proposition （expressed in a sentence） that is assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence. For example, John didn't pass chemistry presupposes that John took chemistry. 8． Minimal pairs 【答案】 The two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string. For example，the English words bear and pear constitute a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /b/ and /p/. 9． 1-narrator 【答案】 The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this ease the critics call the narrator a FIRST-PERSON NARRATOR or I- NARRATOR because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun I is used. First-person narrators are often said to be “limited” because they don‟t know all the faces or “unreliable” because they trick the reader by withholding information or telling untruths. This often happens in murder and mystery stories. 10．Cognition 【答案】 Cognition is, in psychology, used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states （such as beliefs, desires and intentions ） and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 34 页，共 41 页 二、Short-answer-questions 11．What is the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes? 【答案】 The distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes could be illustrated in the following four aspects. Inflectional affixes very often only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem, for instance, those inflectional affixes in words such as toys, walks, John's, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning, e.g. cite, citation; generate, generation. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to，such as flower,flowers; whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. Very often inflectional affixes are conditioned by non-semantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. Whereas, derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. 12．What is move-α rule? 【答案】 Move-α rule is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. It goes like this: any element may be moved to another place, or more generally changed in some way, as long as the relevant conditions （principles） are satisfied. That is to say, the movements are constrained by the other modules of grammar in order to rule out ungrammatical forms, such as the kissed boy girl and were kissed the girl by the boy. It is the interaction of move-α with other syntactic principles that results in grammatical strings. It is responsible for the mapping between active and passive. 13．What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language? 【答案】 The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the roles to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics. 14．What are the three kinds of antonyms? 【答案】 The three kinds of antonyms are gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and converse antonyms. Gradable antonyms refer to antonyms that differ in terms of degree. For example, good and bad. Complementary antonyms are a pair of antonyms complementary to each other: not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other; the denial of one also means the assertion of the other, such as male and female. Converse antonyms do not constitute a positive-negative opposition; they only show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, such as husband and wife. 15．What are the major concerns of the Prague School theory? 【答案】 Three points of the Prague School theory are of special importance. First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 35 页，共 41 页 Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. Third, language was looked on as functional in another sense. Based on these ideas, the Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics, and made great contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Its most important contribution is that it sees language in terms of function. 16．Language can change through blending, metanalysis and borrowing. Give two English words to illustrate each of them. 【答案】 1） blending: smog, brunch 2）metanalysis: an apron （which was originally “a napron”）； an adder （which was originally “a nadder”） 3）borrowing: tea, encore 三、Essay-question 17．Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics? Why or why not? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching? 【答案】 Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and link language to the world, we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study. Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguistic expressions, particularly meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speaker‟s meaning, utterance meaning, or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meanings; the latter is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra. The first implication for second language study involves the appropriate use of the target language. The teaching of a foreign language in a classroom involves two types of instruction: one is informational and analytical and can be diagrammed on the axis of general semantic information about the language. But language learning also has a crucially important skill component, which involves the development of the ability to use the language, actively through speaking and writing and passively through listening and reading. This is the pragmatic turn in second language teaching. The language use should be analyzed in relation to the context of communication, and that language teaching and learning should focus on the appropriate use of the target language, oral and written, according to situational and wider social context. The second implication is concerned with vocabulary learning and translation. The learning of second language‟s vocabularies involves the understanding and memory of their meanings. Since the differences between the first and second language‟s culture, there may be no corresponding meaning underlying the same sayings. Teachers should explain the different usage or implication of the target language‟s items. This is of much importance for cross-cultural translation practices. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 36 页，共 41 页 18．Read the following sentence and illustrate the ideas behind this statement: "'Register is the term used in linguistics to describe the relationship between a particular style of language and its context of use.99 【答案】 The register is what you are speaking at the time, depending on what you are doing and the nature of the activity in which the language is functioning. A register can be defined as a configuration of meanings that are typically associated with a particular situational configuration of field, mode, and tenor. Therefore, a register must also include the expressions, the lexico-grammatical and phonological features, which typically accompany or realize these meanings. Text can be seen as an instance of a register. Register is seen as the linguistic consequence of interacting aspects of context, which Halliday calls “field, tenor, and mode.” Field refers to the topics and actions which language is used to express. Tenor denotes the language users, their relationships to each other, and their purposes. Mode refers to the channel through which communication is carried out. These three contextual variables are intended to help the linguist tie linguistic analysis to the relevant contextual variables. By understanding the semiotic properties of a situation （i.e., the values for field, tenor, and mode） , language users can predict the meanings that are likely to be exchanged and the language likely to be used. And while people are communicating they make predictions by using the values of field, tenor and mode to understand register and that their assessment facilitates their own participation. 19．How are affixes classified? 【答案】 Considering the free and bound morpheme, affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme, so it is naturally bound. Depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word, affixes are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix. For examples, “para-” as prefix, “-tion” as suffix, and “-bloomingly-” in word “abso-bloomingly-luty” as infix. Affix can also be classified depending on the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes. The formal often only add a minute grammatical function to the stem and do not change the word class of the word they attach to; while the latter are very productive in making new words and often change the lexical meaning. For instances, “-s” in words “toys”, “walks” and “John's” is inflectional affixes, while “-tion” is a derivational affix in word “recitation”. 20．Please list and explain the 7 types of meaning recognized by G. Leech. 【答案】 The seven types of meaning were first postulated by G. Leech. They are respectively illustrated as follows: （1）Conceptual meaning, which refers to logical, cognitive, or denotative content. This type of meaning is “denotative” in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. （2）Connotative meaning, what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. It refers to some additional, especially emotive, meaning. （3）Social meaning, referring to what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. （4）Affective meaning, which refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer. （5）Reflected meaning, which refers to what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 37 页，共 41 页 （6）Collocative meaning, what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. The five types of meanings from （2） to （6） are collectively known as Associative meaning in the sense that an elementary associated theory of mental connections is enough to explain their use. （7）Thematic meaning, what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis. It is more peripheral since it is only determined by the order of the words in a sentence and the different prominence they each receive. 四、Synthesis 21．What do you think of Bertrand RusselFs observation of the dog language, “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? 【答案】 When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs. 22．Illustrate the models explaining the process of word recognition. 【答案】 Word lays in the central position in language comprehension because of its extremely important role in transmitting the meaning. Word recognition can be viewed in terms of recognition of spoken words and printed ones. The perception of spoken words is an important task for language user. It seems that human is well adapted for the perception of speech because we usually seem to perceive speech automatically and with little effort. Speech is distributed in time, a fleeting signal that has few reliable cues to the boundaries between sound segments and words. How listeners hear a sequence of discrete units even though the acoustic signal itself is continuous is the core question in this subfield of psycholinguistics. Features of speech could cause difficulty for listeners, for example, some phonemes may be omitted in conversational speech, some may change their pronunciations depending on the surrounding sounds （e. g., /n/ may be pronounced as [m] in learn bacon, and many words have “everyday” pronunciations （e. g., going to frequently becomes gonna） . Listeners attempt to map the acoustic signal onto a representation in the mental lexicon almost as the signal starts to arrive. According to cohort model proposed by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990, the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input; the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner. For example, to an instruction upick up the candle" listeners sometimes glance first at a picture of a candy. This suggests that a set of words beginning with /kæn/ is briefly activated. Listeners may glance at a picture of a handle, too, suggesting that the cohort of word candidates also includes words that rhyme with the target. The kmode/ holds that higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sublexical units. In certain cases, listeners‟ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes‟ in other cases，listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise. The race does not agree “top-down” effects, it has two routes that race each other--a pre-lexical route, which computes phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route, in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 38 页，共 41 页 When word-level information appears to affect a lower-level process，it is assumed that the lexical route won the race. Listeners‟ knowledge of language and its patterns facilitates perception in some ways. For example, listeners use phonotactic information such as the fact that initial /tl/ is illegal in English to help identify phonemes and word boundaries. Listeners also use their knowledge that English words are often stressed on the first syllable to help parse the speech signal into words. These types of knowledge help us solve the segmentation problem in a language that we know. Print serves as a map of linguistic structure, readers use the clues to morphological structure that are embedded in orthugraphy in reading the printed words. For example, they know that the prefix re- can stand before free morphemes such as print and do, yielding the two-morpheme words reprint and redo. Encountering rive, reads may wrongly judge it to he a word because of its familiarity with revive. Phonology and other aspects of linguistic structure are retrieved in reading. In printed word recognition, there‟s a question about how linguistic structure is derived from print. One idea is that two different processes are available for converting orthographic representations to phonological representations. A lexical route is used to look up the phonological forms of known words in the mental lexicon; this procedure yields correct pronunciations for exception words such as love. A nonlexical route accounts for the productivity of reading: It generates pronunciations for novel letter strings （e.g., tove） as well as for regular words （e.g., stove） on the basis of smaller units. This latter route gives incorrect pronunciations for exception words, so that these words may be pronounced slowly or erroneously （e. g., love said as /lʌv/） in speeded word naming tasks. Connectionist theories claim that a single set of connections from orthography to phonology can account for performance on both regular words and exception words. Another question about orthography-to-phonology translation concerns its grain size. English, which has been the subject of much of the research on word recognition, has a rather irregular writing system. For example, ea corresponds to/i/ in bead but /s/ in dead; c is /k/ in cat but /s/ in city. Such irregularities are particularly common for vowels. Quantitative analyses have shown, however, that consideration of the constant that follows a vowel can often help to specify the voweFs pronunciation. The /ε/ pronunciation of ea, for example, is more likely before d thanbefore m. Such considerations have led to the proposal that readers of English often use letter groups that correspond to the syllable rime （the vowel nucleus plus an optional consonantal coda） in spelling-to- sound translation. Because spoken words are spread out in time, spoken word recognition is generally considered a sequential process. With many printed words, though, the eye takes in all of the letters during a single fixation. The connectionist models of reading maintain that all phonemes of a word are activated in parallel. Dual-route models, in contrast, claim that the assembly process operates in a serial fashion such that the phonological forms of the leftmost elements are delivered before those for the succeeding elements. Although many questions remain to be answered, it is clear that the visual representations provided by print rapidly make contact with the representations stored in the mental lexicon. Once this contact has been made, it matters little whether the initial input was by eye or by ear. The principles and processing procedures are much the same. 23．Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph? 【答案】 Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals＇calls. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 39 页，共 41 页 24．“A free form which consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms”, is a phrase. A free form which is not a phrase is a word. A word, then,..，is a minimum free form” （Bloomfield, 1935: 178 ） . Answer the following questions: （a）The term “word” is ambiguous. What kind of words is Bloomfield‟s definition intended to cover? （b）Are there any traditionally recognized words of English （in the appropriate sense of “word”） that fail to satisfy Bloomfield‟s definition? （c）What other criteria have been involved in the definition of the word? 【答案】（a） The “words” in Bloomfield‟s sense, namely, the minimum free forms as conceptual units in general thinking are those smallest units that can stand by themselves and constitute, by themselves, complete utterances. Those that can fonction as complete utterances by themselves like hi, possibly, darling，etc. are “words”. （b）Yes, for example, those words that cannot stand only by themselves and constitute utterances by themselves in the usual sense like the articles a and the in English fail to satisfy Bloomfield s criterion, though he himself does not acknowledge this. （c）In addition to the criterion of a minimum free fom, stability and relative uninterruptibility are also involved in defining the word. Besides, the three senses of 4tword,,? namely, a physically definable unit, the common factor underlying a set of forms and a grammatical unit can be conducive to identifying the word. 25．What does psycholinguistics study and what are the subjects of it? 【答案】 Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. Most problems in psycholinguistics are more concrete, involving the study of .language acquisition especially in children and linguistic performance such as producing and comprehending utterances or sentences among adults. An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious application of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences. Psycholinguists investigate the relationship between language and thought, a perennial subject of debate being whether language is a function of thinking or thought is a function of the use of language. Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the role they play in our thinking. As an interdisciplinary study of language and psychology, psycholinguistics has its roots in structural linguistics on the one hand, and in cognitive psychology on the other hand. It is also closely related to a set of other disciplines, such as anthropology, or the neurosciences. The work of Chomsky and other proponents of transformational grammar have had a marked influence on the field. In the 1960s and early 1970s numerous psychologists and linguists used the transformational-generative model proposed by Chomsky to discover how children come to know the grammatical processes that underlie the speech they hear and to investigate the processing and comprehension of language; spoken or written. And now, psycholinguistics has been turning increasingly to other functionally related and socially oriented models of language structure, Experts use experiments to investigate such topics as short- term and long term memory, perceptual strategies, speech perception based on linguistic models, the brain activity involved in language use, and language impaired due to brain damage, cognition and 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 40 页，共 41 页 language. It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within psycholinguistics: 1） Acquisition: how does a child acquire the language skills （first language acquisition） and how are they extended to other languages （second/foreign language acquisition） ? 2） Comprehension : how is the acoustic or visual signal linguistically interpreted by the hearer or reader? 3） Production: how is the information that somebody wants to convey transformed into acoustic waves, or written characters? 4） Disorders: what causes the occurrence of transient or more permanent disturbances of the speech and language processing systems? 5 ） Language and thought: what role does human language play in thinking? And what differences do different languages make to how we think? 6） Neurocognition: how is the cognitive architecture of language and language processing implemented in the human brain, i.e., what is the cerebral-functional architecture of our language faculty? Here, we will focus on the former three subjects, say, acquisition, comprehension and production.3.Describe the stages of first language acquisition. Key: Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Possessing a language is the quintessentially human trait: all normal humans speak, no nonhuman animal does. Learning a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. With language so close to the core of what it means to be human, it is not surprising that children‟s acquisition of language has received so much attention. Anyone with strong views about the human mind would like to show that children‟s first few steps are steps in the right direction. Language acquisition begins very early in the human lifespan, and begins with the acquisition of a language‟s sound patterns. The main linguistic accomplishments during the first year of life are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents3 * 5 language. Around 18 months, language changes in two ways. Vocabulary growth increases; the child begins to learn words at a rate of one every two waking hours, and will keep learning that rate or faster through adolescence. Children‟s two and three-word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complicated idea. Between the late two-word and mid-three-word stage, children‟s language blooms into fluent grammatical conversation rapidly, sentence length increases steadily. Because grammar is a combinatorial system, the number of syntactic types increases exponentially, doubling every month, reaching the thousands before the third birthday. Normal children can differ by a year or more in their rate of language development, though the stages they pass through are generally the same regardless of how stretched out or compressed and many children speak in complex sentences before they turn two. 26．What is FOCUS ON FORM? 【答案】 The key point in focus on form is that although language learning should generally be meanling-focused and communication oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features by the teacher and/or one or more students triggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production. 27．What do you think of the cognitive approach to literature? 【答案】 The linguistic and cognitive approaches to literature are complementary. The cognitive approach can augment the overall quality, depth and value of the linguistic approach. （Burke, 2005） 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 41 页，共 41 页