罗宾斯管理学双语教学讲稿10

1TenOrganizationalStructureandDesign1.INTRODUCTION.Organizationalstructurecanplayanimportantroleinanorganization’ssuccess.Theprocessoforganizing—thesecondmanagementfunction—ishowanorganization’sstructureiscreated.2.DEFININGORGANIZATIONALSTRUCTURE.Managersareseekingstructuraldesignsthatwillbestsupportandallowemployeestoeffectivelyandefficientlydotheirwork.A.Beforewelookattheelementsoforganizationalstructureanddesign,weneedtodefinesomeimportantterms.1.Organizingistheprocessofcreatinganorganization’sstructure.Thatprocesshasseveralpurposes,asshowninExhibit10.1.2.Anorganizationalstructureistheformalarrangementofjobswithinanorganization.23.Organizationaldesignistheprocessofdevelopingorchanginganorganization’sstructure.Itinvolvesdecisionsaboutsixkeyelements:workspecialization,departmentalization,chainofcommand,spanofcontrol,centralization/decentralization,andformalization.Weneedtotakeacloserlookateachofthesestructuralelements.B.Workspecializationisthedegreetowhichtasksinanorganizationaredividedintoseparatejobs.Mostmanagerstodayseeworkspecializationasanimportantorganizingmechanismbutnotasasourceofever-increasingproductivity.C.Onceworktaskshavebeendefined,theymustbegroupedtogetherinsomewaythroughaprocesscalleddepartmentalization—thebasisonwhichjobsaregroupedinordertoaccomplishorganizationalgoals.3Therearefivemajorwaystodepartmentalize.(Exhibit10.2)1.Functionaldepartmentalizationisgroupingjobsbyfunctionsperformed.2.Productdepartmentalizationisgroupingjobsbyproductline.3.Geographicaldepartmentalizationisgroupingjobsonthebasisofterritoryorgeography.4.Processdepartmentalizationisgroupingjobsonthebasisofproductorcustomerflow.5.Customerdepartmentalizationisgroupingjobsonthebasisofcommoncustomers.6.Twopopulartrendsindepartmentalizationinclude:a.Customerdepartmentalizationcontinuestobeahighlypopularapproach4becauseitallowsbettermonitoringofcustomers’needsandrespondingtothosechangesinneeds.b.Cross-functionalteams,ahybridgroupingofindividualswhoareexpertsinvariousspecialties(orfunctions)andwhoworktogether,arebeingusedalongwithtraditionaldepartmentalarrangements.D.Thechainofcommandisthecontinuouslineofauthoritythatextendsfromtheupperorganizationallevelstothelowestlevelsandclarifieswhoreportstowhom.Threerelatedconceptsincludeauthority,responsibility,andunityofcommand.1.Authorityistherightinherentinamanagerialpositiontotellpeoplewhattodoandtoexpectthemtodoit.52.Responsibilityistheobligationorexpectationtoperform.3.Unityofcommandistheclassicalmanagementprinciplethatasubordinateshouldhaveoneandonlyonesuperiortowhomheorsheisdirectlyresponsible;thatis,apersonshouldreporttoonlyonemanager.E.Theconceptofspanofcontrolreferstothenumberofsubordinatesamanagercansuperviseeffectivelyandefficiently.1.Thespanofcontrolconceptisimportantbecauseitdetermineshowmanylevelsandmanagersanorganizationwillhave.(SeeExhibit10.3foranexample.)2.Whatdeterminesthe“ideal”spanofcontrol?Contingencyfactorssuchastheskillsandabilitiesofthemanagerandtheemployees,thecharacteristicsoftheworkbeingdone,similarityof6employeetasks,thecomplexityofthosetasks,thephysicalproximityofsubordinates,thedegreetowhichstandardizedproceduresareinplace,thesophisticationoftheorganization’sinformationsystem,thestrengthoftheorganization’sculture,andthepreferredstyleofthemanagerwillinfluencetheidealnumberofsubordinates.3.Thetrendinrecentyearshasbeentowardlargerspansofcontrol.F.Theconceptsofcentralizationanddecentralizationaddresswho,where,andhowdecisionsaremadeinorganizations.1.Centralizationisthedegreetowhichdecision-makingisconcentratedatasinglepointintheorganization,usuallyintheupperlevelsoftheorganization.72.Decentralizationisthehandingdownofdecision-makingauthoritytolowerlevelsinanorganization.3.Thetrendistowarddecentralizingdecisionmakinginordertomakeorganizationsmoreflexibleandresponsive.4.Employeeempowermentisanothertermforincreaseddecentralizationandistheincreasingofthedecision-makingdiscretionofemployees.5.Anumberoffactorswillinfluencetheamountofcentralizationordecentralizationanorganizationuses.(SeeExhibit10.4.)G.Formalizationreferstothedegreetowhichjobswithinanorganizationarestandardizedandtheextenttowhichemployeebehaviorisguidedbyrulesandprocedures.81.Inahighlyformalizedorganization,employeeshavelittlediscretion,andthere’sahighlevelofconsistentanduniformoutput.Formalizedorganizationshaveexplicitjobdescriptions,lotsoforganizationalrules,andclearlydefinedprocedures.2.Inaless-formalizedorganization,employeeshavealotoffreedomandcanexercisediscretioninthewaytheydotheirwork.3.Standardizationnotonlyeliminatesthepossibilitythatemployeeswillengageinalternativebehaviors,itevenremovestheneedforemployeestoconsideralternatives.4.Thedegreeofformalizationcanvarywidelybetweenorganizationsandevenwithinorganizations.3.ORGANIZATIONALDESIGNDECISIONS.9Organizationsdon’thavethesamestructures.Evencompaniesofsimilarsizedonotnecessarilyhavesimilarstructures.A.MechanisticandOrganicorganizationalforms.(SeeExhibit10.5.)1.Amechanisticorganizationisanorganizationalstructurethat’scharacterizedbyhighspecialization,rigiddepartmentalization,narrowspansofcontrol,highformalization,alimitedinformationnetwork,andlittleparticipationindecision-makingbylow-levelemployees.2.Anorganicorganizationisastructurethat’shighlyadaptiveandflexiblewithlittleworkspecialization,minimalformalization,andlittledirectsupervisionofemployees.3.Wheniseachdesignfavored?It“depends”onthecontingencyvariables.10B.Contingencyfactors—appropriatestructuredependsonfourcontingencyvariables:1.Strategyandstructure.Oneofthecontingencyvariablesthatinfluencesorganizationaldesignistheorganization’sstrategy.a.AlfredChandlerdidtheoriginalworkonthestrategy-structurerelationship.Hisfindingthatstructurefollowedstrategypointedoutthatasorganizationschangedtheirstrategies,theyhadtochangetheirstructuretosupportthatstrategy.b.Mostcurrentstrategy-structureframeworkstendtofocusonthreestrategydimensions:111)Innovation—needstheflexibilityandfreeflowofinformationoftheorganicorganization2)Costminimization—needstheefficiency,stability,andtightcontrolsofthemechanisticorganization3)Imitation—whichusescharacteristicsofbothmechanisticandorganic2.Sizeandstructure.There’sconsiderablehistoricalevidencethatanorganization’ssizesignificantlyaffectsitsstructure.Largerorganizationstendtohavemorespecialization,departmentalization,centralization,andformalizationalthoughthesize-structurerelationshipisnotlinear.123.Technologyalsohasbeenshowntoaffectanorganization’schoiceofstructure.a.Everyorganizationusessomeformoftechnologytotransforminputsintooutputs.b.JoanWoodward’sstudyofstructureandtechnologyfoundthatorganizationsadaptedtotheirtechnology.Shefoundthatthreedistincttechnologieshadincreasinglevelsofcomplexityandsophistication.1)Unitproductionistheproductionofitemsinunitsorsmallbatches.2)Massproductionislarge-batchmanufacturing.3)Processproductioniscontinuous-processproduction.13c.Woodwardfoundinherstudyofthesethreegroupsthatdistinctrelationshipsexistedbetweenthesetechnologies,thesubsequentstructureoftheorganization,andtheeffectivenessoftheorganization.Exhibit10.6providesasummaryofthesefindings.4.Environmentaluncertaintyandstructure.Thefinalcontingencyfactorthathasbeenshowntoaffectorganizationalstructureisenvironmentaluncertainty.Onewaytomanageenvironmentaluncertaintyisthroughadjustmentsintheorganization’sstructure.Themoreuncertaintheenvironment,themoreflexibleandresponsivetheorganizationmayneedtobe.4.COMMONORGANIZATIONALDESIGNS.A.Traditionalorganizationaldesigns.14Wenowneedtolookatvariousorganizationaldesignsthatyoumightseeintoday’sorganizations.Exhibit10.8summarizesthestrengthsandweaknessesofeachofthesedesigns.1.Asimplestructureisanorganizationaldesignwithlowdepartmentaliza-tion,widespansofcontrol,authoritycentralizedinasingleperson,andlittleformalization.a.Itsstrengthsareitsflexibility,speed,andlowcosttomaintain.b.Itsmajordrawbackisthatit’smosteffectiveinsmallorganizations.2.Asanorganizationgrows,thestructuretendstobecomemorespecializedandformalized.Whencontingencyfactorsfavorabureaucraticormechanisticdesign,oneoftwooptionsislikelytobeused.153.Oneoptionexpandsfunctionaldepartmentalizationintothefunctionalstructure,whichisanorganizationaldesignthatgroupssimilarorrelatedoccupationalspecialtiestogether.4.Theotheroptionisthedivisionalstructure,whichisanorganizationalstructuremadeupofautonomous,self-containedunits.B.Contemporaryorganizationaldesigns.However,manyoftoday’sorganizationsarefindingthatthetraditionalhierarchicalorganizationaldesignsaren’tappropriatefortheincreasinglydynamicandcomplexenvironmentstheyface.1.Teamstructures.Oneofthenewerconceptsinorganizationaldesignistheteamstructure,whichisanorganizationalstructuremadeupofworkgroupsorteamsthatperformstheorganization’swork.2.Matrixandprojectstructures.16Anothervariationinorganizationalarrangementsisbasedonthefactthatmanyoftoday’sorganizationsdealwithworkactivitiesofdifferenttimerequirementsandmagnitude.a.Oneofthesearrangementsisthematrixorganizationthatassignsspecialistsfromdifferentfunctionaldepartmentstoworkononeormoreprojectsbeingledbyprojectmanagers.(SeeExhibit10.9.)b.Anotherofthesedesignsistheprojectstructure,whichisastructureinwhichemployeesarepermanentlyassignedtoprojects.3.TheBoundarylessOrganization.Anotherapproachtoorganizationaldesignistheboundarylessorganization,whichdescribesanorganizationwhosedesignisnotdefinedby,or17limitedto,thehorizontal,vertical,orexternalboundariesimposedbyapredefinedstructure.4.Avirtualorganizationisonethatconsistsofasmallcoreoffulltimeemployeesandthattemporarilyhiresoutsidespecialiststoworkonopportunitiesthatarise5Anetworkorganizationisasmallcoreorganizationthatoutsourcesmajorbusinessfunctions.6Amodularorganizationisamanufacturingorganizationthatusesoutsidesupplierstoprovideproductcomponentsthatarethenassembledintofinalproducts.7.TheLearningOrganization.Finally,someorganizationshaveadoptedanorganizationalphilosophyofalearningorganization—anorganizationthathasdevelopedthecontinuouscapacitytoadaptandchangebecauseallmemberstakeanactiverolein18identifyingandresolvingwork-relatedissues.Exhibit10.10showsthecharacteristicsofalearningorganization.1.Cananorganization’sstructurebechangedquickly?Whyorwhynot?Thespeedofchanginganorganization’sstructuredependsonitssize.Asmallorganizationcouldchangeitsstructuremuchmorerapidlythanalargeone.Butevenalargeorganizationcanchangeitsstructureandoftendoesinresponsetochangingenvironmentalconditionsandchangingstrategies.2.Wouldyouratherworkinamechanisticoranorganicorganization?Why?Students’answerstothiswillvary.You’llfindthatmanystudentspreferthestructureprovidedbyamechanisticorganizationwhereasotherswouldhatethattypeofrigidity.JustareminderthattheOnlineSelf-AssessmentLibraryScale#39,“WhatTypeofOrganizationStructureDoIPrefer?”19addresseswhetherornotstudentswouldliketoworkinabureaucracy(amechanisticorganization).Youmightwanttouse(orreuse)itinansweringthisquestionorasafollow-uptothisquestion.3.Whattypesofskillswouldamanagerneedtoeffectivelyworkinaprojectstructure?Inaboundarylessorganization?Inalearningorganization?Inallofthesetypesoforganizations,flexibilityandadaptabilitywouldbecritical.Intheprojectstructure,conflictmanagementskillsmightbeparticularlyuseful.Inaboundarylessorganization,theabilitytodealwithpeopleatalllevelsandinallareasoftheorganizationmightbeuseful.Finally,inalearningorganization,apersonwouldneedtheabilitytocommunicatebothbylisteningandbyspeakingbecausesharinginformationisimportant.4.Theboundarylessorganizationhasthepotentialtocreateamajorshiftinourlivingandworkingpatterns.Doyouagreeordisagree?Explain.20Students’responsestothisarelikelytovary.Thismightbeaninterestingquestiontosetupasadebate.Havestudentsbreakintoteamsandassigntheteamsonesideortheother.Givethemachancetocomeupwiththeirarguments,andthenletthempresenttheirinformation.5.Withtheavailabilityofadvancedinformationtechnologythatallowsanorganization’sworktobedoneanywhereatanytime,isorganizingstillanimportantmanagerialfunction?Whyorwhynot?Althoughanorganization’sworkmaybedoneanywhereatanytime,organizingisstillanimportantmanagerialfunctionbecausetheworkstillhastobedivided,grouped,andcoordinated.Andthat’swhatorganizinginvolves.