语言学期末考试填空题题库

Chapter11.Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.Forlearnersofaforeignlanguage,itistheconventionalityofalanguagethatismoreworthnoticingthatitsarbitrariness.2.InSaussure’sview,therelationshipbetweensignifier(soundimage)andsignified(concept)isarbitrary.3.Humanlanguageisarbitrary.Thisreferstothefactthatthereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.4.Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatures5.Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconcepts,whicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.Thisqualityislabeledasdisplacement.6.Bydualityismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsofthelevelarecomposedofelementsofthelevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.7.Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehasideational,interpersonalandinterpersonalfunctions.Ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Thisisthemetalingualfunctionoflanguage.Interpersonalfunctionisrealizedbymoodandmodality.Whenlanguageisusedforestablishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactratherthanexchanginginformationorideas,itsfunctionisphaticfunction.11.Somesentencesdonotdescribethings.Theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteranceofthesesentencesisorisapartofthedoingofanaction.Theyarecalledperformatives12.Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.13.Thebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsofalanguageiscalledphonetics.14.Thebranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructuresofwordsiscalledmorphology.15.Phoneticsmainlystudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.16.Semanticsandpragmaticsinvestigatedifferentaspectsoflinguisticmeaning.17.Inlinguistics,syntaxreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentence.18.Pragmaticscanbedefinesasthestudyoflanguageinuse.19.Ifalinguistics,synchronicstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifitaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior,itissaidtobeprescriptive20.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatsuccessfulstudiesofvariousstatesofalanguagewouldbethefoundationofahistoricalstudy.21.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticssystemsharedbeallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.22.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformance,theactualuseofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.23.”Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”.ThisfamousquotationfromShakespeareillustratesthatlanguagehasthedesignfeatureofarbitrariness.24.AnEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletouselanguage,buttheyarenotmutuallyintelligible,whichshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted25.Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butthedetailsoflanguagehavetobetaughtandlearned.Chapter21.Thedifferentmembersofaphoneme,soundswhicharephoneticallydifferentbutdonotmakeoneworddifferentfromanotherinmeaning,areallophones.2.Thethreecavitiesinthearticulatoryapparatusarethepharynx,mouth,andnose.3.NamesixplacesofarticulationaccordingtoFromkinandRodmanthroat,palate,palatetop,teeth,lips,nose,NamefiveofEnglishfrontvowels:i:,i,e,æ,a.Thesound[p]canbedescribedwith“voiceless,bilabial,stop”Intheproductionofavelarsound,thebackofthetongueisraisedsothatittouchesthesoftpalatetoformakindofobstruction.7.Bythepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue,vowelsareclassifiedasfrontvowels,centralvowelsandbackvowels.8.Pitch,asaprincipalsuprasegmentalfeatures,canbedefinedastherelativeintensityofsoundnesswithwhichasyllableisuttered.InEnglish,thesound[b]hasthesamephoneticfeaturesasthesound[p]exceptthefeatureofvoicing.10.Assimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound.TheoralstopsinEnglishareb,p,d,t,gandk.Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Thesound[p]canbedescribedwith"voiceless,bilabial,stop".Thesound[b]canbedescribedwith"voiced,bilabial,stop"Consonantarticulationsarerelativelyeasytofeel,andasaresultaremostconvenientlydescribedintermsofplaceandmannerofarticulation.4.Consonantsareproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.5.Thepresentsystemofthecardinalvowelsderivesmainlyfromonedevelopedinthe1920sbytheBritishphonetician,DanielJones(1881-1967),andhiscolleaguesatUniversityofLondon.6.Consonantarticulationsarerelativelyeasytofeel,andasaresultaremostconvenientlydescribedintermsofplaceandmannerofarticulation.7.Thesound/k/canbedescribedwith“voiceless,velar,stop”.8.Narrowtranscriptionshouldtranscribeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingtheminuteshades.9.Assimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsounds.10.Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.11.ThesyllablestructureinChineseisCVCorCVorV.12.Thedifferentmembersofaphoneme,soundswhicharephoneticallydifferentbutdonotmakeoneworddifferentfromanotherinmeaning,areallophoneofairstream.13.InEnglish,thetwowordscutandgutdifferonlyintheirinitialsoundsandthetwosoundsaretwodifferentphonemesandthe2wordsareaminimalpair.14.Consonantsdifferfromvowelsinthatthelatterareproducedwithoutobstructionofairstream.15.InEnglishthereareanumberofdiphthong,.whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.16.Accordingtothemaximalonsetprinciple,whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda17.Inphonologicalanalysisthewordsfail-veilaredistinguishablesimplybecauseofthetwophonemes/f/-/v/.Thisisanexampleforillustratingminimalpairs.Chapter31.Polymorphemicwordsotherthancompoundshavetwoparts:therootsandtheaffixes2.On,beforeandtogetheraregrammaticalwords----theyarewordswhichdonottakeinflectionalendings.3.GivetheregularallomorphsofpluralinEnglish:/n/,/i:/,/s/,/z/,/iz/.4.GivetheregularallomorphsofpasttenseinEnglish:/iə/,/t/,/d/.5.Nouns,verbsandadjectivesarecontextwordsotherthanfunctionwords.6.Intheadditionofnewwords,smogisa(an)blending.7.WaltzisborrowedfromGerman.8.Asaresultofassimilation,thenegativemorphemeinimperfectandimpossibleis“im-”ratherthan“in-”.9.Thelinguistictermusedforthecommonfactorofasetofverbs,suchaswriting,wrote,written,writeandwritesislexeme.10.Aboundmorphemeisonethatcannotconstituteawordbyitself.Asthelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguagewhilethegrammaticalonesservetolinkitsdifferentpartstogether,thelexicalwordsarealsoknownascontentwordsandgrammaticalonesaffixes.Intraditionalgrammar,pronounistheonlywordclasswhichcanfunctionasasubstituteforanotheritem.Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords,theycanbeclassifiedintoGrammaticalwordsandlexicalwords.Themorphemeistheminimaldistinctiveunitingrammar,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetherlexicalorgrammatical.Thereare2fieldsofmorphology:thestudyofinflectionalmorphologyandthestudyofderivationalmorphology.AboundmorphemeisonethatcannotstandbyitselfMorphologyisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiesthatstudiestheinterrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphology.Blendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompoundinginwhichanewwordisformedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofonewordandthefinalpartofanotherword.Forexample,theEnglishwordsmogismadefromsmokeandfog.Back-formation”referstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydetectinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.Wordisaunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Itistheminimumfreeform.Affixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcallbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,namely,prefix,suffix,andinfix.Takeisthelexemeoftaking,takenandtook.Boundmorphemesareclassifiedinto2types:affixandboundroot,.14.Awordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative,andawordformedbycompoundingiscalledacompound.Chapter4ICistheshortformofimmediateconstituentusedinthestudyofsyntax.Coordinationandsubordinationbelongtoendocentricconstruction.4.Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingword,suchas"and","but","or".5.Aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyaloneisknownasafiniteclause.6.ICanalysisemphasizesthehierarchicalstructureofasentence,seeingitasconsistingofwordgroupsfirst.7.Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whoseoperationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.8.Syntacticrelationsincludepositionalrelation,relationofsubstitutability,relationofco-occurrence.NamethreeofSVOlanguages:English,Chinese,FrenchICistheshortfromofimmediateconstituentusedinthestudyofsyntax.ThecategoryofcaseisprominentinthegrammarofLatin,withsixdistinctionsofnominativevocative,accusative,genitive,dativeandablative.ThegenerativeapproachtolinguisticsreferstothetheoryoriginatedwiththeAmericanlinguistNormChomsky,whopublishedhisbookSyntacticStructuresin1957.Whentheaffirmativesentence“JacksoldhislinguisticstextbookstoJillafterthefinalexamination”istransformedinto“WhendidJacksellhislinguisticstextbookstoJill?”,threetransformationalrulesareapplied.TheyareDo-insertion,Subject-auxInversionandWh-movement.Thesentence“ItwasJohnwhoworehisbestsuittothedancelastnight.”iscalledacleftsentencebytraditionalgrammarians.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(becomplement)construction.AccordingtoChomsky,grammarisamechanismthatshouldbeabletogenerateallandonlythegrammaticalsentencesofalanguage.Chapter5Humanlanguageisarbitrary.Thisreferstothefactthatthereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.Predicationanalysisistobreakdownpredicationsintotheirconstituents:argumentandpredicateThesenserelationbetween“AlentabooktoB”and“BborrowedabookfromA”issynonymyAntonymslike”husband”vs.”wife”areconverseantonyms.Termslike”desk”and”stool”arehyponymsoftheterm“furniture”.AccordingtoD.Leech,conceptualmeaningreferstologic,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.Weusethetermpresuppositiontorefertotherelationbetweenthefollowingtwosentences:A.Jack‟sbikeneedsrepairing.B.Jackhasabike.Theideathatthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombinedtheprincipleofcompositionality.Inspiredbythemedievalgrammarians,OgdenandRichard(1923)presenttheclassic“semantictriangle”intheirbookTheMeaningofMeaning.Chapter6Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind.According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,calledthecerebralcortexThebrainisdividedintotworoughlysymmetricalhalves,calledhemispheres,oneontherightandoneontheleft.Brainarterializationisgeneticallyprogrammed,buttakestimetodevelop,Ingeneral,thetwo-wordstagebeginsroughlyinthesecondhalfofthechild’ssecondyear.Therelationshipbetweenthenameandthemeaningofawordisquitearbitrary.Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardthoughtassub-vocalspeechasovertthought.Becauselanguagediffersinmanyways,Whorfbelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground.Thisnotioniscalledlinguisticrelativity.Psycholinguistsconsiderthatthefirstlanguageisacquiredintheshortperiodfromaboutagetwotopuberty,whichiscalledthecriticalperiodofthefirstlanguageacquisition.Thestrong version of the Sapir-Whorfhypothesishastwoaspects:linguisticdeterminismandlinguisticreality.Thecohortmodelisasupposeddoctrinedealingwiththespokenwordrecognition,whoseprocessfeaturesthatthefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetorcohortofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Metaphorinvolvesthecomparisonoftwoconceptsinthatoneisconstruedintermsoftheother.It’softendescribedintermsofatargetdomainandasourcedomain.Childrenfrequentlysaytoothsandmouses,insteadofteethandmice.Theseareexamplesofovergeneralization16.Psycholinguisticsisconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructures.17.Accordingtocriticalperiodhypothesis,inchilddevelopmentthereisaperiodduringwhichlanguagecanbeacquiredmoreeasilythanatanyothertime.Theperiodlastsuntilpuberty(around12or13years),andisduetobiologicaldevelopment.Chapter7Idiolectreferstovarietiesofalanguageusedbyindividualspeakers,withpeculiaritiesofpronunciation,grammarandvocabulary.Infact,notwospeakersspeakexactlythesamedialect.Eachspeakerhascertaincharacteristicfeaturesofhisowninhiswayofspeaking.Wewitnessedachangeinlanguageteachinginthemiddleofthe1970swhenHymes’theoryofcommunicativecompetencewasintroducedintothefieldasanantagonismtothetraditionalphilosophyinlanguageteaching.Thesocialgroupisolatedforstudyisanygivenstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.Speechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishablefromofspeechusedbyspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Fromthesociolinguisticperspective,aspeechvarietyisnomorethanadialectualvarietyofalanguage.Languagestandardizationisalsocalledlanguageplanning.Socialvariationgivesrisetosociolectswhicharesubdivisibleintosmallerspeechcategoriesthatreflecttheirsocioeconomic,educational,occupationalbackground,etc.Stylisticvariationinaperson’sspeechorwritingusuallyrangesonacontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.Areginaldialectmaygainstatusandbecomestandardizedasthenationalorofficiallanguageofacountry.Varietyisaneutralterm,anditcanbeusedinsteadofregionalorofficialdialect,orpidgin.Sociolinguisticsisamultidisciplinaryresearchfieldfocusingontherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Thedifferencesbetweenmenandwomen’slanguagecanbetracedtomanybiological,psychologicalandsocialreasons.Thegoalofsociolinguisticsistoexplorethenatureoflanguagevariationandlanguageuseamongavarietyofspeechcommunitiesandindifferentsocialsituation.Everyspeakerofalanguageis,inastrictersense,aspeakerofadistinctidiolect.Apidginusuallyreflectstheinfluenceofthehigher,ordominant,languageinitslexiconandthatofthelowerlanguageintheirphonologyandoccasionallysyntax.Socialvariationgivesrisetosociolectswhicharesubdivisibleintosmallerspeechcategoriesthatreflecttheirsocioeconomic,educational,occupationalbackground.