语言学(1-4) 章(1)

Whatislinguistics?⏹Linguisticsisthescienceoflanguage,alternatively,thescientificstudyoflanguage.⏹Whyisitscientific?⏹Abranchofhumanitiesandsocialscience.⏹Ithasasetofestablishedtheories,methodsandbranches.⏹Itdoesnotstudyaspecificlanguagebutlanguageingeneral.Itisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticsdata（writtenandspoken）⏹Main/CoreBranches(Micro-linguistics)⏹Phonetics(语音学)Production,transmission,andperceptionofspeechsounds⏹Phonology（音系学）Rulesofsoundpatterning;phoneme⏹Morphology（形态学）Rulesofwordformation;morpheme⏹Syntax（句法学）Rulesofgrammaticalsentenceformation⏹Semantics（语义学）Studyofmeaningwiththecontextdisregarded⏹Pragmatics （语用学）Studyofmeaningincontext⏹InterdisciplinaryBranches(Macro-linguistics)⏹PsychologicalLinguistics（心理语言学）⏹Socio-linguistics（社会语言学）⏹ComputationalLinguistics(计算机语言学)⏹Stylistics（文体学)⏹AppliedLinguistics(应用语言学)⏹DistinctionbetweenPhoneticsandPhonology⏹Phonetics:thestudyofsoundusedinlinguisticcommunication(speechsounds).⏹Phonology:thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandused.⏹Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsoundsthatthehumanvoiceiscapableofcreating,whereasphonologyisthestudyofsubsetofthosesoundsthatconstitutelanguageandmeaning.Thefirstfocusonchaos,butthesecondonorder.⏹Macro-linguistics:（黑体）⏹Psychologicallinguistics:investigationoftheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingutteranceandinlanguageacquisition.⏹Itaimstoanswersuchquestionsas⏹howthehumanmindworkswhenweuselanguage,⏹howweasinfantsacquireourmothertongue,⏹howwememorizeandhowweprocesstheinformationwereceiveinthecourseofcommunication.⏹MoreonPage18.⏹Socio-linguistics:thestudyofthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,thecharacteristicsoftheirfunctionsandthecharacteristicofitsspeakerastheseconstantlyinteractandchangewithinaspeechcommunity.⏹Anthropologicallinguistics:(SeeHu2006:18-19)⏹Computationallinguistics:aninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehuman/naturallanguage.⏹Appliedlinguistics:applicationsoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblems.Inanarrowsense,itonlyreferstotheapplicationoflinguistictheories andprinciplestolanguageteaching,esp.theteachingofforeignandL2,testing,translationandsoon.(SeeLiu,2006:327).（红）SomeImportantDistinctions：⏹Prescriptive( 规定 关于下班后关闭电源的规定党章中关于入党时间的规定公务员考核规定下载规定办法文件下载宁波关于闷顶的规定 式)VSdescriptive（描述式）⏹[9a]Don’tsayX.⏹[9b]PeopledonotsayX.⏹Prescriptive:Ifthelinguisticsaimstolaydowntherulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldandshouldnotsay.Itisprescribinghowthingsoughttobe.⏹Descriptive:Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itisdescriptive.Itisdescribinghowthingsare.⏹Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,whereastraditionalgrammarwasstronglyprescriptive.⏹Synchronic(共时):Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory.e.g.AGrammarofModernGreek,Shakespeare'slanguage,etc.⏹Diachronic(历时):Thedescriptionoflanguageasitschangesthroughtime.Itishistoricalstudyoflanguage,butnothistoricallinguistics.Itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g.HowistheIndo-Europeanfamilydevelopsthroughhistory?LangueandParole⏹MadebySaussure（Fatherofmodernlinguistics）⏹Abstractvs.concrete:⏹Linguisticcompetence=langue(语言),istheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,orthesetofconventionsandrulesthatthelanguageusersallhavetoabideby.⏹parole（言语）,theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics,referstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse,theconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationofrules.Itisthenaturallyoccurringoflanguageevents.⏹Stablevs.varying⏹Langueisstable.Itdoesnotchangefrequently.Butparoleisnot.Itvariesfrompersontopersonandfromsituationtosituation.⏹Thedistinctionisforthesystemicstudyoflanguage.Theobjectsoflinguistsisthelangueofeachcommunity.CompetenceandPerformance：⏹MadebyChomskyNoam⏹Competence:anideallanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.⏹Performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.(Chomsky,1965:3)⏹Asalanguageuserwehavetheintuitivetograsptherulesofthelanguage,andthoughwemaynotbeabletostatetherulesexplicitly.⏹Aspeaker’scompetenceisstable,butperformanceisnot.Itisofteninfluencedbymanypsychologicalandsocialfactors.⏹AccordingtoChomsky,thetaskofalinguististodeterminethedataofperformance,theunderlyingsystemofrulesthathasbeenmasteredbythelanguageuser.⏹Chomsky’sdistinctionofcompetenceandperformanceisrelatedtothedistinctionofSaussure,buthedoesnotaccepttheviewofseeinglanguageasameresystematicinventoryofterms.Itshouldrefertotheunderlyingcompetenceasasystemofgenerativeprocess.⏹Whatislanguage?⏹Designfeaturesoflanguage⏹Functionsoflanguage.⏹Originoflanguage(optional)WhatIsLanguage?⏹Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.⏹DesignFeatures( 设计 领导形象设计圆作业设计ao工艺污水处理厂设计附属工程施工组织设计清扫机器人结构设计 /定义特征)⏹Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage?⏹Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatures.Theyare:⏹Arbitrariness (任意性)⏹Duality(双重性)⏹Creativity(创造性)⏹Displacement (移位性)⏹Arbitrariness:thefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearsnonaturalrelationshipstotheirmeaning.i.e.,thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds.Ithasdifferentlevels：⏹A)Betweenthesoundandmorphemeanditsmeaning.e.g.onomatopoeicwords:⏹Creak，Bang，Bowbow，cuckoo⏹B)atthesyntacticlevel⏹Syntaxisthewaysthesentencesareconstructedaccordingtothegrammar.Languageisnotarbitraryatthislevel.⏹(a)Hecameinandsatdown.⏹(b)Hesatdownandcamein.⏹C）Arbitrarinessandconvention⏹Letsleepingdoglie.⏹Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalitymakeslearningoflanguagelaborious.Itistheconventionalityofalanguagethatismoreworthyofnoticingcomparedwitharbitrariness.⏹Duality:thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevel(words)arecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevel(sounds)andeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprincipleoforganization.(Lyons,1981:20)⏹Thesecondaryunitsaremeaninglessandtheprimaryunitshavedistinctandidentifiablemeaning.⏹Thepropertyofdualityexistinsuchasystem,namely,withbothelementsandunits.⏹Meaninglesssounds->morpheme->words->language⏹e.g./k/,/a:/,/p/,/s/->carpsandparks⏹Creativity:LanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityandRecursiveness.⏹Becauseofduality,thespeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticsunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhicharenewbutcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeople.Itishumanspecific.e.g.⏹Athree-eyedwhitemonkeyisinthebedoftheFrenchEmperor.⏹Recursivenessprovidesatheoreticalbasisforlanguage’s potentialtocreateendlesssentences.eg:⏹a)Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknownforitsgraduateswho…⏹Displacement：Languageenablesitsusertosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentintimeandplace)atthemomentofcommunication.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertothings whicharepresentornotpresent,realorimagined,mattersinthepast,presentorfutureorinfar-awayplaces.⏹Displacementbenefitshumanbeingsbygivingthemthepowertohandlegeneralizationsandabstractions.⏹Animals’communicationsystemsareunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”,buthumanlanguageis“stimulusfree”.FunctionsofLanguage⏹JackobsonandHisCategories⏹6elementsofcommunicationSpeaker/addresser说话者, Addressee听话者 , Context语境            Message内容 , Code形式 , Contact接触             ⏹6functionsoflanguageEMOTIVE情感的,CONATIVE意动的,REFERENTIAL概念的POETIC诗学的,METALINGUAL元语言的,PHATIC寒暄的Hallidayandhiscategories⏹7functions（inhisearlyworks）⏹Instrumental（工具性功能）⏹Regulatory（控制性功能）⏹Representational（表述功能）⏹Personal(个人功能)⏹Interaction（交往功能）⏹Heuristic（启发功能）⏹Imaginative（想象功能）⏹Meta-functions（Halliday:1994）⏹IDEATIONAL:(概念功能)amodelofexperienceandlogicalrelationsInformativefunction信息功能(见下面解析)⏹INTERPERSONAL:（人际功能）enactssocialrelationshipPerformative施为功能  (见下面解析)Emotivefunction情感功能  (见下面解析)Phaticcommunion寒暄功能 (见下面解析)⏹TEXTUAL:（语篇功能）createsrelevancetocontext⏹Recreationalfunction娱乐功能⏹Metalingualfunction 元语功能Informativefunction⏹Languageservesfortheexpressionofcontent:thatis…(Hu,2006:10)⏹Whenlanguageisusedtogiveinformation,itisinformative.⏹e.g.Waterboilsat100°C.⏹Themostimportantfunctionoflanguage,bywhichthestatusofthepeopleareestablishedandmaintained.⏹e.g.DearProfessor,Performativefunction⏹Primarilyusedtochangethesocialstatusoftheperson,ofteninquiteformalandritualizedlanguage.⏹Now,Iannounceyouhusbandandwife.⏹InametheshipQueenElizabeth. ⏹Itcanalsoextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasion.Emotivefunction⏹Meansofgettingridofthenervousenergywhenweareunderpress.⏹Damn(whensomeonestrikeshisfingerwithahammer.)⏹Hurray！; Wow,whatasight….Phaticcommunion⏹Somesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintaincomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.⏹Godblessyou.Meta-language⏹Meta-language:languageusedfortalkingabouttalkorthinkaboutthinkingSigns:Na,H2O,Ø,Man[HUMAN,MALE,ADULT]Whathavewetalkedaboutinthischapter?⏹LinguisticsDefinitionandunderstandingScopeImportantdistinctions⏹LanguageDefinitionandunderstandingDesignfeaturesFunctionsOriginChapter2SpeechSoundsPhoneticsSpeechOrgansOrthographicTranscriptionofSpeechSounds–IPAClassificationofEnglishSpeechSoundsConsonantVowelsPhonologyPhoneticsVSPhonologyCoarticulationPhone,PhonemesandallophonesPhonologicalProcessPhonologicalRulesDistinctiveFeaturesSuprasegmentalFeaturesStressToneIntonationPhoneticsPhonetics:thestudyofspeechsoundsthatoccurinallhumanlanguages.(Liu,2006:45)Itcanbedividedinto:Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofproductionofspeechsounds(thespeaker’spointofview)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds(thetransmission)Perceptive/auditoryphonetics:thestudyoftheperceptionofthespeechsounds(thehearer’spointofview)CavitiesofSpeech/Vocalorgans:Nasalcavity=nose[m],[n]and[N]Oralcavity=mouthTongue:tip,blade,front,backandroot.Uvular,softpalate,hardpalate,teethridge,teethandlips.PharyngealcavityVocalfolds（中国海洋大学1999）Apart:voicelessClosetogether:voicedTotallyclosed:glottalstop[?]InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedtranscriptionofspeechsoundsinauguratedbyInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1897.ProposedbyOttoJespersen(DanishGrammarianandphonetician)Basicprinciple:AseparateletterselectedfrommainEuropeanlanguageforonesound,thesameletterforthesamesoundinallthelanguages.Romanletters,newlettersanddiacriticsNarrowandBroadTranscriptionsBroadtranscriptionTranscriptionofspeechsoundsbyusingasimplesetofsymbols.NarrowtranscriptionTranscriptionofspeechsoundsbyusing morespecificsymbols,suchasdiacritics(变音符),toshowthephoneticdetailsofspeechsounds.(复旦大学1996；浙江大学2001)ConsonantsandVowelsInphonetics,asegmentiseitheraconsonantoravowel.Thedistinctionbetweenthemliesintheobstructionoftheairstream.ConsonantAspeechsoundproducedbyaclosureinthevocaltract（声道）,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.TwoFactorsforConsonantCategorization：MannerofArticulation(发音方法)PlaceofArticulation（发音位置）MannersofArticulation---thewaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished.Thearticulatorsmay: Closeofftheoraltractforaninstantoralongperiodoftime;Narrowthespaceconsiderably;Modifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.IntermsofMannersofArticulation,theconsonantsaredividedinto:Stop(爆破音)[p,b,t,d,k,g]Nasal(鼻音)[m,n,N]Fricative(摩擦音)[f,v,W,T,M,V,h]Approximant(近音)[w, ,j]Lateral(边音)[l]Trill/roll（颤音）[r]Tapandflap(闪音):Americansubstitutionfor[d,t,n],e.g.city,letteranddirty.Affricative(塞擦音):stopfricative [tM,dV]PlaceofArticulation---thepointwhereaconstantismade.Practically,aconsonantcanbemadeatanyplacebetweenthelipsandvocalfolds.IntermsofPlaceofArticulation,consonantscanbedividedinto:Bilabial（双唇音）[p,b,m]Labiodental（唇齿音）[f,v]Dental（齿音）[W,T]Alveolar（齿龈音）[t,d,n,s,z,r,l]Postalveolar（齿龈后音）[M,V]Retroflex（卷舌音）Palatal（硬颚音）[j]Velar（软腭音）[k,g,N]Uvlar（小舌音）Pharyngeal（咽音）Glottal（喉音）:[?]cotton,fattenInaddition:Inthedescriptionoftheconsonants,therearetwosoundssharingthesameplaceandmannerofarticulation.TheyaredistinguishedbyVoicing(带声性),theleftoneisvoiceless,buttherightonevoiced.Therefore,factorsfordescriptionofconsonantsamounttothree.Namely,Voicing,placeandmannerofarticulation.VowelAspeechsoundproducedwithoutobstructionofthevocaltractsothatairescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthorthenose.See(Hu:2005,29)Cardinalvowels(基本元音)asetofvowelsqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsinexistinglanguages.(33)Secondarycardinalvowels(次要基本元音)vowelsgotbyreversingthelip-roundingforagivenposition.Schwa（中元音）[E]RequirementsforDescriptionofEnglishVowelsTheheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low)Thepositionofthehighestpartoftongue(front,central,back)Lengthortensenessofthevowels(tense=long,lax=short)Lip-rounding(roundedorunrounded)PhonologyPhonologyDefinitionRelationship(differenceandsimilarity)betweenphoneticsandphonology.FromPhoneticstoPhonologyCoarticulationPhonemesAllophonesPhologocialprocess,phonologicalrulesanddistinctivefeaturesAssimilationEpenthesisEpenthesis,ruleorderingandelsewherecondition(剩余位置条件)Distinctivefeatures(区别特征)SuprasegmentalSyllableStressIntonationPhonologyThestudyofthesoundpatterns(语音模式)andsoundsystems（语音系统）oflanguage.Itaimstodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.Procedure:Individuallanguageanalysis→phonologicalstructurediscovery→cross-languagepropertycomparison→hypothesis→rulesunderlyingthesoundpatternsofalllanguagesPhoneme（音位）Abasicunitofphonologicalstudy,isanabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeaning.Itisnotananyparticularsound,butratheritisrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.e.g./p/:[p]and[ph]      speakandpeakByconvention,thephonemictranscriptions(phoneme)areplacedwithin‘‘/ /”,whilethephonetictranscriptions(phone)are within“[ ]”.Inthissense,“broad’and“phonemic”transcriptioncoincide.Oncethephoneticdetailsgiven,“[ ]”mustbeused.Thenarrowtranscriptionmustbeputinsquarebracket.Minimalpairtest:TechniqueforphonemeidentificationMinimalpair（最小对比对）Apairofwordsthathavedifferentmeaningsanddifferbyonlyasinglesoundinthesameposition.e.g.pit/bit,look/took,andkeep/coop.(Liu:2006:335)Thetestcanbeusedtofindoutwhichsoundsubstitutioncausesdifferenceinmeaning.Alternatively,phonemesimplyreferstoa“unitofexplicitsoundcontrast”:theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsthephonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrast.(Hu，2005：40)Allophone(音位变体)Thedifferentrealizations/phonesofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments/contexts./p/→[p]/[s]_____[ph]/elsewhere(剩余位置条件)(Note: “_____”isthepositionthechangedsoundappears.Thechoiceoftheallophonesarenotatrandom,butrule-governedAllophonesofthesamephonemedonotdistinguishmeaning.Buttheyareallincomplementarydistribution（互补分布）.Notallthephonesincomplementarydistributionareconsideredtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme.TheymustbearsomePhoneticSimilarity.Theallophonesarebothphoneticallysimilarandincomplementarydistribution.See(Hu,2005:41）Freevariant(自由变体)（41-2）Twosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrastbutmerelyproduceadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thenthetwosoundsareinFreeVariation.Assimilation(同化)SynonymofCoarticulation(协同发音)Theprocessofsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulations.Alternatively,itreferstotheprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthefeaturesofitsneighboringsound.（Hu,2005:42）Itcanbedividedinto:ProgressiveAssimilation顺同化=perseverativecoarticulation（后滞协同发音）RegressiveAssimilation逆同化=anticipatorycoarticulation（先期协同发音）Perseverativecoarticulation后滞协同发音/ProgressiveAssimilation顺同化Ifone soundbecomesmoreliketheprecedingsound,asinthecaseofmap,wecallthisprocesspreserverativecoarticulation.(Aprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound.)Anticipatorycoarticulation（先期协同发音）/RegressiveAssimilation逆同化Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.(Afollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound.Phonologicalprocess,phonologicalrulesanddistinctivefeaturesPhonologicalprocess(音系过程)Theprocessinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangesincertainenvironmentorcontext.Assimilation(Cf.Coarticulation)（red）Nasalization鼻音化Detalization 齿音化Velarization 腭音化Devoicing  清音化Assimilation（同化）canoccuracrosssyllableorwordboundaries.EpenthesisDeletionruleSequentialruleTranscriptionofPhonologicalRulesTranscriptionofphonologicalrules（音系规则）Nasalizationrule:[-nasal]→[nasal]/__[nasal]Detalizationrule:[-dental]→[dental]/___[dental]Velarizationrule:[-velar]→[velar]/__[velar]Devoicingrule:voicedfricativevoiceless/__voicelessNote:the“/”specifiestheenvironmentinwhichthechangetakesplace,the“___”indicatesthepositionofthetargetsegment.Therulesreads”The…istransformedinto…whenitappearsbefore/after…”SomeotherPhonologicalRulesEpenthesis(插音、增音):Theadditionofavowelorconsonantatthebeginningofawordorbetweensounds.Itoftenhappensinlanguagelearningwhenthelanguagewhichisbeinglearnthasdifferentcombinationofvowelsorconsonantsformthelearner’sL1.e.g.Anapple Sibilant(咝音)aspeechsoundwhichisproducedwithfrictionandwhichhasas-likesoundDeletionRulewhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.[g]insign-signatureSequentialrulestherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“k,b,I,I” mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.e.g.light,rightIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a) thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b) thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c) thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.phonologicalrules:Nasalizationrule[-nasal]→[nasal]/__[nasal]﹠TheregularpasttenseforminEnglish/d/→[id]/[t,d]____[t] / [-voiced]____[d]/ inotherplacesTheregularpasttenseinEnglishispronouncedas[id]whenwordendswith[t]or[d],[t]whenitendswithavoicelessconsonant,and[d]inotherplaceswhenitendswithavoicedsound.DistinctiveFeatures：Distinctivefeatures(区别特征)AmeansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrasttocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesoundsFirstproposedbyJacobson.Majordistinctions[±consonantal][±sonorant][sonorant]:consonantsexceptstop,fricativeandaffricative(obstruents)[-sonorant]:stop,fricative,affricativeandallvowels[±nasal][±voiced]SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentalFeatures(超音段特征)Theaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalonesare:Syllables   （音节）Stress     （重音）Tone   （声/音调）Intonation  （语调）Syllable:Aspeechunitlongerthanawordbutsmallerthanawholeword.SyllabicstructureOnset:optionalRhyme:vowels,[ł],[m],[n]Nucleus（red）:compulsoryCoda:optional→open/closesyllablesMOP(MaximalOnsetPrinciple)最大节首辅音规则whenthereisachoice astowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecodaStress:thedegreeofforceusedinpronunciationofasyllable.UsageatdifferentlevelsAtthewordlevelonlyappliestowordswithatleasttwosyllables.Atsentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.thenotionalwordsarenormallystressedwhilestructuralwordsareunstressed.Thestressinasentencealsovariesfromonetoanother,dependingonthefocusofthespeaker.Stressmayfallonanysyllableinprinciple,butitchangesoverhistoryandexhibitregionalordialectaldifferences.FunctionsDistinguishthegrammaticalfunctionofthewords(ibid.)Alternationofstressbetweencompoundsandthephrases.(ibid.)PrimaryandsecondarystressWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechv.: im5port;  in5crease; re5bel; re5cord…n.: 5import; 5increase; 5rebel; 5record…Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:  5blackbird;  5greenhouse; 5hotdog…nounphrase:black5bird; green5house;hot5dogThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnounsSentencestressTherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Stressed:contentwords(nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns)Unstressed:grammaticalwords(articles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositionsandconjunctions)Note:forpragmaticreason,thisrule