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TheFirstCivilizationsParagraph1:Evidencesuggeststhatanimportantstimulusbehindtheriseofearlycivilizationswasthedevelopmentofsettledagriculture,whichunleashedaseriesofchangesintheorganizationofhumancommunitiesthatculminatedintheriseoflargeancientempires.Paragraph2:Theexacttimeandplacethatcropswerefirstcultivatedsuccessfullyisuncertain.Manyprehistoriansbelievethatfarmingmayhaveemergedindependentlyinseveraldifferentareasoftheworldwhensmallcommunities,drivenbyincreasingpopulationandadeclineinavailablefoodresources,begantoplantseedsinthegroundinanefforttoguaranteetheirsurvival.Thefirstfarmers,whomayhavelivedaslongas10,000yearsago,undoubtedlyusedsimpletechniquesandstillreliedprimarilyonotherformsoffoodproduction,suchashunting,foraging,orpastoralism.Therealbreakthroughtookplacewhenfarmersbegantocultivatecropsalongthefloodplainsofriversystems.Theadvantagewasthatcropsgrowninsuchareaswerenotasdependentonrainfallandthereforeproducedamorereliableharvest.Anadditionalbenefitwasthatthesedimentcarriedbytheriverwatersdepositednutrientsinthesoil,thusenablingthefarmertocultivateasingleplotofgroundformanyyearswithoutmovingtoanewlocation.Thus,thefirsttrulysedentary(thatis,nonmigratory)societieswereborn.Astimewenton,suchcommunitiesgraduallylearnedhowtodirecttheflowofwatertoenhancetheproductivecapacityoftheland,whiletheintroductionoftheironploweventuallyledtothecultivationofheavysoilsnotpreviouslysusceptibletoagriculture.Paragraph3:ThespreadofthisrivervalleyagricultureinvariouspartsofAsiaandAfricawasthedecisivefactorintheriseofthefirstcivilizations.Theincreaseinfoodproductionintheseregionsledtoasignificantgrowthinpopulation,whileeffortstocontroltheflowofwatertomaximizetheirrigationofcultivatedareasandtoprotectthelocalinhabitantsfromhostileforcesoutsidethecommunityprovokedthefirststepstowardcooperativeactivitiesonalargescale.Theneedtooverseetheentireprocessbroughtabouttheemergenceofanelitethatwaseventuallytransformedintoagovernment.Paragraph4:Thefirstclearstepsintheriseofthefirstcivilizationstookplaceinthefourthandthirdmillennia.inMesopotamia,northernAfrica,India,andChina.Howthefirstgovernmentstookshapeintheseareasisnotcertain,butanthropologistsstudyingtheevolutionofhumancommunitiesinvariouspartsoftheworldhavediscoveredthatonecommonstageintheprocessistheemergenceofwhatarecalled“bigmen”withinasinglevillageoracollectionofvillages.Bymeansoftheirmilitaryprowess,dominantpersonalities,orpoliticaltalents,thesepeoplegraduallyemergeastheleadersofthatcommunity.Intime,the“bigmen”becomeformalsymbolsofauthorityandpassonthatauthoritytootherswithintheirownfamily.Asthecommunitiescontinuetogrowinsizeandmaterialwealth,the“bigmen”assumehereditarystatus,andtheiralliesandfamilymembersaretransformedintoahereditarymonarchy.Paragraph5:Theappearanceofthesesedentarysocietieshadamajorimpactonthesocialorganizations,religiousbeliefs,andwayoflifeofthepeopleslivingwithintheirboundaries.Withtheincreaseinpopulationandthedevelopmentofcentralizedauthoritycametheemergenceofthecities.Whilesomeoftheseurbancenterswereidentifiedwithaparticulareconomicfunction,suchasproximitytogoldorirondepositsorastrategiclocationonamajortraderoute,othersservedprimarilyasadministrativecentersorthesiteoftemplesfortheofficialcultorotherritualobservances.Withinthesecities,newformsoflivelihoodappearedtosatisfythegrowingneedforsocialservicesandconsumergoods.Somepeoplebecameartisansormerchants,whileothersbecamewarriors,scholars,orpriests.Insomecases,thephysicaldivisionwithinthefirstcitiesreflectedthestricthierarchicalcharacterofthesocietyasawhole,witharoyalpalacesurroundedbyanimposingwallandseparatefromtheremainderoftheurbanpopulation.Inotherinstances,suchastheIndusRiverValley,thecitieslackedaroyalprecinctandtheostentatiouspalacesthatmarkedtheircontemporarieselsewhere.Paragraph1:Evidencesuggeststhatanimportantstimulusbehindtheriseofearlycivilizationswasthedevelopmentofsettledagriculture,whichunleashedaseriesofchangesintheorganizationofhumancommunitiesthatculminatedintheriseoflargeancientempires.1.Thephrase“culminatedin”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA)reachedahighpointwithB)logicallyfollowedfromC)partlycontributedtoD)markedParagraph2:Theexacttimeandplacethatcropswerefirstcultivatedsuccessfullyisuncertain.Manyprehistoriansbelievethatfarmingmayhaveemergedindependentlyinseveraldifferentareasoftheworldwhensmallcommunities,drivenbyincreasingpopulationandadeclineinavailablefoodresources,begantoplantseedsinthegroundinanefforttoguaranteetheirsurvival.Thefirstfarmers,whomayhavelivedaslongas10,000yearsago,undoubtedlyusedsimpletechniquesandstillreliedprimarilyonotherformsoffoodproduction,suchashunting,foraging,orpastoralism.Therealbreakthroughtookplacewhenfarmersbegantocultivatecropsalongthefloodplainsofriversystems.Theadvantagewasthatcropsgrowninsuchareaswerenotasdependentonrainfallandthereforeproducedamorereliableharvest.Anadditionalbenefitwasthatthesedimentcarriedbytheriverwatersdepositednutrientsinthesoil,thusenablingthefarmertocultivateasingleplotofgroundformanyyearswithoutmovingtoanewlocation.Thus,thefirsttrulysedentary(thatis,nonmigratory)societieswereborn.Astimewenton,suchcommunitiesgraduallylearnedhowtodirecttheflowofwatertoenhancetheproductivecapacityoftheland,whiletheintroductionoftheironploweventuallyledtothecultivationofheavysoilsnotpreviouslysusceptibletoagriculture.2.Accordingtoparagraph2,whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueofearlyfarmersA)Theyusedfarmingtosupplementotherfoodsources.B)Theyweredrivenoutofsmallcommunities.C)Theywerevictimsofflooding.D)Theyfarmedseveralplotsoflandatonce.3.Theword“undoubtedly”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA)increasinglyB)certainlyC)ingeneralD)apparently4.Accordingtoparagraph2,whatareTWOreasonswhyfarmerschoserivervalleysforcultivationToreceivecredityoumustselectTWOanswerchoices.A)Thesoilsinrivervalleyswererichinnutrients.B)Thecropsgrowninrivervalleyswerenotcompletelydependentonrainwater.C)Farmingtechniquescouldnotbeeasilyappliedtosoilsfarfromrivers.D)Theheavierweightofriversoilresultedinmorereliableharvests.5.Theword“enhance”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA)serveB)improveC)controlD)protectParagraph3:ThespreadofthisrivervalleyagricultureinvariouspartsofAsiaandAfricawasthedecisivefactorintheriseofthefirstcivilizations.Theincreaseinfoodproductionintheseregionsledtoasignificantgrowthinpopulation,whileeffortstocontroltheflowofwatertomaximizetheirrigationofcultivatedareasandtoprotectthelocalinhabitantsfromhostileforcesoutsidethecommunityprovokedthefirststepstowardcooperativeactivitiesonalargescale.Theneedtooverseetheentireprocessbroughtabouttheemergenceofanelitethatwaseventuallytransformedintoagovernment.6.Theword“provoked”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA)securedB)coordinatedC)modeledD)broughtabout7.Accordingtoparagraph3,whichofthefollowingisNOTareasonwhygovernmentsfirstaroseamongagriculturalcommunitiesA)AsignificantincreaseinpopulationB)ThedesiretocontrolwaterresourcesforirrigationC)TheneedforprotectionfromoutsideforcesD)ThedemandfororganizedcommunicationwithothercommunitiesParagraph4:Thefirstclearstepsintheriseofthefirstcivilizationstookplaceinthefourthandthirdmillennia.inMesopotamia,northernAfrica,India,andChina.Howthefirstgovernmentstookshapeintheseareasisnotcertain,butanthropologistsstudyingtheevolutionofhumancommunitiesinvariouspartsoftheworldhavediscoveredthatonecommonstageintheprocessistheemergenceofwhatarecalled“bigmen”withinasinglevillageoracollectionofvillages.Bymeansoftheirmilitaryprowess,dominantpersonalities,orpoliticaltalents,thesepeoplegraduallyemergeastheleadersofthatcommunity.Intime,the“bigmen”becomeformalsymbolsofauthorityandpassonthatauthoritytootherswithintheirownfamily.Asthecommunitiescontinuetogrowinsizeandmaterialwealth,the“bigmen”assumehereditarystatus,andtheiralliesandfamilymembersaretransformedintoahereditarymonarchy.8.Accordingtoparagraph4,whatisnotknownabouttheriseofthefirstcivilizationsA)WherethefirststepstowardcivilizationtookplaceB)Whowasallowedtoreplace“bigmen”afterthe“bigmen”diedC)WhysomeindividualsbecamerecognizedasleadersD)Howgovernmentsemerged9.Whatistherelationshipbetweenparagraphs3and4inthepassageA)Paragraph3explainswhyaneedforleadershiparoseinearlycivilizations,andparagraph4describeshowthatleadershipdeveloped.B)Paragraph3suggeststhatagriculturewasfirstpracticedinAsiaandAfrica,andparagraph4discusseshowitmighthavelaterspreadtotherestoftheworld.C)Paragraph3describesseveralmethodsofearlygovernment,andparagraph4givesanextendedexampleofoneofthem.D)Paragraph3discussesacauseofthespreadofrivervalleyagricultureinearlycivilizations,andparagraph4discussesaneffect.Paragraph5:Theappearanceofthesesedentarysocietieshadamajorimpactonthesocialorganizations,religiousbeliefs,andwayoflifeofthepeopleslivingwithintheirboundaries.Withtheincreaseinpopulationandthedevelopmentofcentralizedauthoritycametheemergenceofthecities.Whilesomeoftheseurbancenterswereidentifiedwithaparticulareconomicfunction,suchasproximitytogoldorirondepositsorastrategiclocationonamajortraderoute,othersservedprimarilyasadministrativecentersorthesiteoftemplesfortheofficialcultorotherritualobservances.Withinthesecities,newformsoflivelihoodappearedtosatisfythegrowingneedforsocialservicesandconsumergoods.Somepeoplebecameartisansormerchants,whileothersbecamewarriors,scholars,orpriests.Insomecases,thephysicaldivisionwithinthefirstcitiesreflectedthestricthierarchicalcharacterofthesocietyasawhole,witharoyalpalacesurroundedbyanimposingwallandseparatefromtheremainderoftheurbanpopulation.Inotherinstances,suchastheIndusRiverValley,thecitieslackedaroyalprecinctandtheostentatiouspalacesthatmarkedtheircontemporarieselsewhere.10.WhichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassageIncorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.A)Somecitieswereassociatedwitheconomicactivities,whileothersweregovernmentorreligiouscenters.B)Emergingcitiesgenerallyservedstrategicadministrative,economic,andreligiouspurposes.C)Thecreationofaneconomicoradministrativeactivityledtotheemergenceofacityforitspropersupervision.D)Somecitiesemergedaseconomiccentersandlaterbecamethesitesofadministrativeorreligiousactivities.11.Paragraph5suggeststhatwhichofthefollowingwasaconsequenceoftheemergenceofcitiesA)ThedecentralizationofauthorityB)AnincreaseinreligiousactivityC)Theemergenceofservice-andproduction-relatedjobsD)Adecreasedrelianceonmineralresources12.Accordingtoparagraph5,whywerehugewallsbuiltaroundearlyroyalpalacesA)ToprotecttheinhabitantsfrominvadersB)TomarktheurbanareasC)ToseparatetherulingclassfromtherestofthepopulationD)TorepresenttheprosperityofacityParagraph5:Theappearanceofthesesedentarysocietieshadamajorimpactonthesocialorganizations,religiousbeliefs,andwayoflifeofthepeopleslivingwithintheirboundaries.■Withtheincreaseinpopulationandthedevelopmentofcentralizedauthoritycametheemergenceofthecities.■Whilesomeoftheseurbancenterswereidentifiedwithaparticulareconomicfunction,suchasproximitytogoldorirondepositsorastrategiclocationonamajortraderoute,othersservedprimarilyasadministrativecentersorthesiteoftemplesfortheofficialcultorotherritualobservances.■Withinthesecities,newformsoflivelihoodappearedtosatisfythegrowingneedforsocialservicesandconsumergoods.■Somepeoplebecameartisansormerchants,whileothersbecamewarriors,scholars,orpriests.Insomecases,thephysicaldivisionwithinthefirstcitiesreflectedthestricthierarchicalcharacterofthesocietyasawhole,witharoyalpalacesurroundedbyanimposingwallandseparatefromtheremainderoftheurbanpopulation.Inotherinstances,suchastheIndusRiverValley,thecitieslackedaroyalprecinctandtheostentatiouspalacesthatmarkedtheircontemporarieselsewhere.13.Lookatthefoursquares■thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.Thiswasaccompaniedbyincreasedprofessionalspecialization.Wherewouldthesentencebestfit14.ProseSummaryThepracticeofsettledagricultureinsomeareasofAsiaandAfricawascrucialtothedevelopmentofearlycivilizations.AnswerChoices:A)Prehistoriansdisagreeastowhetherearlyfarmersfirstcultivatedcropsalongfloodplainsorfirsttriedcultivatingcropsinlesssuccessfulenvironments.B)Cultivationinfertilerivervalleysresultedinpredictableharvests,whichmeantthatfarmersnolongerneededtomigrateconstantlyinsearchoffood.C)Becausecropscouldbecultivatedmoresuccessfullywherefarmerswerenotcompletelydependentonrainfall,hostilitiesbetweengroupsaroseovercontroloftheriversystems.D)Theneedtoorganizetheefforttoensurethefoodsupplyanddefendthelandledtotheformationofelitesupervisinggroupsthateventuallybecamethefirstgovernments.E)Increasinglycentralizedformsofadministrationresultedintheemergenceofsocialclassesandinthedevelopmentofcitiesastrade,administration,orreligiouscenters.F)Unlikeotherearlycivilizations,thosethatdevelopedintheIndusRiverValleydidnothaveanyspectacularpalacesorareasforexclusiveusebytheauthorities.答案1.A2.A3.B4.AB5.B6.D7.D8.D9.A10.A11.C12.C13.D14.BDERailroadsandCommercialAgricultureinNineteenth-CenturyUnitedStatesParagraph1:By1850theUnitedStatespossessedroughly9,000milesofrailroadtrack;thenyearslaterithadover30,000miles,morethantherestoftheworldcombined.Muchofthenewconstructionduringthe1850soccurredwestoftheAppalachianMountains–over2,000milesinthestatesofOhioandIllinoisalone.Paragraph2:Theeffectofthenewrailroadlinesrippledoutwardthroughtheeconomy.Farmersalongthetracksbegantospecializeincorpsthattheycouldmarketindistantlocations.Withtheirprofitstheypurchasedmanufacturedgoodsthatearliertheymighthavemadeathome.BeforetherailroadreachedTennessee,thestateproducedabout25,000bushels(or640tons)ofwheat,whichsoldforlessthan50centsabushel.Oncetherailroadcame,farmersinthesamecountiesgrew400,000bushels(over10,000tons)andsoldtheircropatadollarabushel.Paragraph3:Thenewrailroadnetworksshiftedthedirectionofwesterntrade.In1840mostnorthwesterngrainwasshippedsouthdowntheMississippiRivertothebustlingportofNewOrleans.Butlowwatermadesteamboattravelhazardousinsummer,andiceshutdowntrafficinwinter.Productssuchaslard,tallow,andcheesequicklyspoiledifstoredinNewOrleans’hotandhumidwarehouses.Increasingly,trafficfromtheMidwestflowedwesttoeast,overthenewraillines.Chicagobecametheregion’shub,linkingthefarmsoftheupperMidwesttoNewYorkandothereasterncitiesbymorethan2,000milesoftrackin1855.ThuswhilethevalueofgoodsshippedbyrivertoNewOrleanscontinuedtoincrease,theSouth’soverallshareofwesterntradedroppeddramatically.Paragraph4:AsharpriseindemandforgrainabroadalsoencouragedfarmersintheNortheastandMidwesttobecomemorecommerciallyoriented.Wheat,whichin1845commanded$abushelinNewYorkCity,fetched$in1855;insimilarfashionthepriceofcornnearlydoubled.Farmersrespondedbyspecializingincashcrops,borrowingtopurchasemoreland,andinvestinginequipmenttoincreaseproductivity.Paragraph5:AsrailroadlinesfannedoutfromChicago,farmersbegantoacquireopenprairielandinIllinoisandthenIowa,puttingthefertile,deepblacksoilintoproduction.Commercialagriculturetransformedthisremarkabletreelessenvironment.Tosettlersaccustomedtoeasternwoodlands,thethousandsofsquaremilesoftallgrasswereanawesomesight.Indiangrass,Canadawildrye,andnativebigbluestemallgrewhigherthanaperson.Becauseeasternplowscouldnotpenetratethedenselytangledrootsofprairiegrass,theearliestsettlerserectedfarmsalongtheboundaryseparatingtheforestfromtheprairie.In1837,however,JohnDeerepatentedasharp-cuttingsteelplowthatslicedthroughthesodwithoutsoilstickingtotheblade.CyrusMcCormickrefinedamechanicalreaperthatharvestedfourteentimesmorewheatwiththesameamountoflabor.Bythe1850sMcCormickwasselling1,000reapersayearandcouldnotkeepupwithdemand,whileDeereturnedout10,000plowsannually.Paragraph6:ThenewcommercialfarmingfundamentallyalteredtheMidwesternlandscapeandtheenvironment.NativeAmericanshadgrowncornintheregionforyears,butneverinsuchlargefieldsasdidlatersettlerswhobecamefarmers,whosesurpluseswereshippedeast.Prairiefarmersalsointroducednewcropsthatwerenotpartoftheearlierecologicalsystem,notablywheat,alongwithfruitsandvegetables.Paragraph7:Nativegrasseswerereplacedbyasmallnumberofplantscultivatedascommodities.Cornhadthebestyields,butitwasprimarilyusedtofeedlivestock.BecausebreadplayedakeyroleintheAmericanandEuropeandiet,wheatbecamethemajorcashcrop.Tamegrassesreplacednativegrassesinpasturesformakinghay.Paragraph8:Westernfarmersalteredthelandscapebyreducingtheannualfiresthathadkepttheprairiefreefromtrees.Intheabsenceofthesefires,treesreappearedonlandnotincultivationand,ifundisturbed,eventuallyformedwoodlots.Theearlierunbrokenlandscapegavewaytoindependentfarms,eachfencedoffinaprecisecheckerboardpattern.Itwasanartificialecosystemofanimals,woodlots,andcrops,whoselarge,uniformlayoutmadewesternfarmsmoreefficientthanthemore-irregularfarmsintheEast.Paragraph1:By1850theUnitedStatespossessedroughly9,000milesofrailroadtrack;thenyearslaterithadover30,000miles,morethantherestoftheworldcombined.Muchofthenewconstructionduringthe1850soccurredwestoftheAppalachianMountains–over2,000milesinthestatesofOhioandIllinoisalone.1.Accordingtoparagraph1,eachofthefollowingistrueaboutrailroadtrackintheUnitedStatesEXCEPT:A)In1850theUnitedStateshadlessthan10,000milesofrailroadtrack.B)Bytheendofthe1850s,OhioandIllinoiscontainedmorerailroadtrackthananyotherstateinthecountry.C)MuchoftherailroadtrackbuiltintheUnitedStatesduringthe1850swaslocatedwestoftheAppalachianMountain.D)By1860thereweremoremilesofrailroadtrackintheUnitedStatesthaninanyothercountry.Paragraph2:Theeffectofthenewrailroadlinesrippledoutwardthroughtheeconomy.Farmersalongthetracksbegantospecializeincorpsthattheycouldmarketindistantlocations.Withtheirprofitstheypurchasedmanufacturedgoodsthatearliertheymighthavemadeathome.BeforetherailroadreachedTennessee,thestateproducedabout25,000bushels(or640tons)ofwheat,whichsoldforlessthan50centsabushel.Oncetherailroadcame,farmersinthesamecountiesgrew400,000bushels(over10,000tons)andsoldtheircropatadollarabushel.2.Itcanbeinferredfromparagraph2thatthenewrailroadshadwhichofthefollowingeffectsonfarmcommunitiesA)Mostnewfarmswerelocatedalongthetracks.B)Farmersbegantogrowwheatasacommercialcorp.C)Manyfarmerdecidedtogrowawidervarietyofcrops.D)Demandformanufacturedgoodsincreasedamongfamers.Paragraph3:Thenewrailroadnetworksshiftedthedirectionofwesterntrade.In1840mostnorthwesterngrainwasshippedsouthdowntheMississippiRivertothebustlingportofNewOrleans.Butlowwatermadesteamboattravelhazardousinsummer,andiceshutdowntrafficinwinter.Productssuchaslard,tallow,andcheesequicklyspoiledifstoredinNewOrleans’hotandhumidwarehouses.Increasingly,trafficfromtheMidwestflowedwesttoeast,overthenewraillines.Chicagobecametheregion’shub,linkingthefarmsoftheupperMidwesttoNewYorkandothereasterncitiesbymorethan2,000milesoftrackin1855.ThuswhilethevalueofgoodsshippedbyrivertoNewOrleanscontinuedtoincrease,theSouth’soverallshareofwesterntradedroppeddramatically.3.Theword“bustling”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA)famousB)importantC)growingD)busy4.Accordingtoparagraph3,inwhatwaydidthenewrailnetworkschangewesterntradeA)Northwesternfarmersalmostcompletelystoppedshippinggoodsbysteamboat.B)ManywesterngoodsbegantobeshippedeastbywayofChicagoratherthansouthtoNewOrleans.C)ChicagolargelyreplacedNewYorkandothereasterncitiesasthefinalmarketforgoodsfortheWest.D)Thevalueofgoodsshippedwestsoonbecamegreaterthanthevalueofgoodsshippedeast.5.Accordingtoparagraph3,whatwasadisadvantageofshippinggoodsfromnorthwesternareastoNewOrleansA)TherewasnoreliablewaytogetgoodsfromNewOrleanstoeasterncities.B)ThecostofshippinggoodsbyrivertoNewOrleanscontinuedtoincrease.C)GoodsshippedfromNewOrleans’neighboringareashadasignificantcompetitiveadvantagebecauseoftheirlowertransportationcosts.D)Thetemperaturesandhumidity.Paragraph4:AsharpriseindemandforgrainabroadalsoencouragedfarmersintheNortheastandMidwesttobecomemorecommerciallyoriented.Wheat,whichin1845commanded$abushelinNewYorkCity,fetched$in1855;insimilarfashionthepriceofcornnearlydoubled.Farmersrespondedbyspecializingincashcrops,borrowingtopurchasemoreland,andinvestinginequipmenttoincreaseproductivity.6.Paragraph4supportstheidea