语言学教程Chapter 8. Language in Useppt课件

ChapterEightLanguageinUse..1.DefinitionofPragmaticsThestudyoflanguageinuse.Thestudyofmeaningincontext.Thestudyofspeakers’meaning,utterancemeaning,&contextualmeaning..Speaker’smeaning(Afatheristryingtogethis3-year-olddaughtertostopliftingupherdresstodisplayhernewunderweartotheassemble.)Father:Wedon’tDOthat.Daughter:IKNOW,Daddy.Youdon’tWEARdresses..UtteranceMeaningvs.SentenceMeaningUtterancevs.SentenceSentence:abstractunitsofthelanguagesystem.Utterance:unitsoflanguageinuse..Sentencemeaning:WhatdoesXmean?Utterancemeaning:WhatdoyoumeanbyX?Dog!Mybagisheavy.“Janet!Donkeys!”(DavidCopperfield).It’scoldinhere..ContextualMeaning:meaningincontextThemeaningofthesentencedependsonwhothespeakeris,whotheheareris,whenandwhereitisused.ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing..Semanticmeaning:themoreconstant,inherentsideofmeaningPragmaticmeaning:themoreindeterminate,themorecloselyrelatedtocontext.1.A:Areyougoingtotheseminar?B:It’sonlinguistics.2.A:Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.3.A:我带的钱不够，今天买不了。B:那就下次再买吧。.2.SpeechActTheoryJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)speechacts:actionsperformedviautterances.Constativesvs.performativesConstatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish..Performatives:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Performativeverbs:name,bet,etc..Ido.InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.Ipromisetofinishitintime.Iapologize.Ideclarethemeetingopen.Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge..Felicityconditions:A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure.(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.B.Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.C.Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified..ProblemswithfelicityconditionsNostrictprocedureforpromising.Ipromise.Igivemywordforit.Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.(TorF?).Minister:addressingthegroom)(Groom’sName),doyoutake(Bride’sName)foryourlawfulweddedwife,tolivetogetherafterGod’sordinance,intheholyestateofmatrimony?Willyoulove,honor,comfort,andcherishherfromthisdayforward,forsakingallothers,keepingonlyuntoherforaslongasyoubothshalllive?Groom:Ido..FeaturesofperformativesFirstpersonsingularSpeechactverbs/performativeverbs:ThepresenttenseIndicativemoodActivevoice.Ipromisetobethere.I’llbethere.IadmitIwaswrong.Iwasfoolish.Iwarnyou,thisgunisloaded.Thisgunisloaded.Ithankyou.I’mverygrateful.Iapologize.I’msorry.Iorderyoutositdown.Youmustsitdown..Conclusion:Thedistinctionbetweenconstatives&performativescannotbemaintained.Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings..3.IllocutionaryActTheoryJohnSearle(1932-)Speechactscanbeanalyzedon3levels:Alocutionaryact:theactofsayingsomethinginthefullsenseof“say”..Anillocutionaryact:anactperformedinsayingsomething.Tosaysthistodosth.InsayingX,IwasdoingY.Insaying“Iwillcometomorrow”,Iwasmakingapromise.Illocutionaryforce.Aperlocutionaryact:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Bysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.Shoother!.4.ConversationalImplicaturePeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.HerbertPaulGrice(1913-1988)WilliamJameslecturesatHarvardin1967LogicandConversationin1975.Grice’stheoryLogicandConversationisanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.TheCooperativePrinciple(CP).Makeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged..MaximofQuality:Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired..MaximofRelation:Berelative.MaximofManner:Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly..CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication..However,CPisoftenviolated.SinceCPisregulative,CPcanbeviolated.ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature..Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。>Idon’twanttotellyouwhatIbought..DearSir,Mr.X’scommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.Yours>Mr.Xisnotsuitableforthejob..2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.>Hersonshouldnotbeblamed..A:Yourkidbrokethewindow.B:Boysareboys.>Wariswar.>.Violationofthemaxims(Quality)1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Xrunsasfastasadeer.Heismadeofiron..2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.A:BeirutisinPeru,isn’tit?B:AndRomeisinRomania,Isuppose.>It’sridiculous..Violationofthemaxims(Relation)Berelevant.A:Prof.Wangisanoldbag.B:Niceweatherforthetimeofyear.>Idon’twanttotalkaboutProf.Wang..萍：爸爸，不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好,很忠诚的。朴：恩，我很累了。我预备到书房歇一下。你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来。>.Violationofthemaxims(Manner)1.AvoidobscurityofexpressionA:Let’sgetthekidssomething.B:Ok,butIvetoC-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.>Don’tgivethemchocolate..2.AvoidambiguityA:Nameandtitle,please?B:JohnSmith,AssociateEditorandprofessor.Cf:买一赠一。.3.BebriefA:Didyougetmyassignment?B:Ireceivedtwopagesclippedtogetherandcoveredwithrowsofblacksquiggles.>notsatisfied..CharacteristicsofimplicatureCalculability:hearersworkoutimplicaturebasedonliteralmeaning,CPanditsmaxims,context,etc..Cancellability/defeasibility:Ifthelinguisticorsituationalcontextschanges,theimplicaturewillalsochange.A:Doyouwantsomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Idonotlikecoffee.B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Iwanttostayup..Non-detachability:implicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform;implicaturesdonotvanishifthewordsofanutterancearechangedforsynonyms.A:Shallwegothecinematonight?B:There’llbeanexamtomorrow.I’lltakeanexamtomorrow.Isn’tthereanexamtomorrow?.Non-conventionality:implicatureisdifferentfromitsconventionalmeaningofwords.Itiscontext-dependent.Itvarieswithcontext.A1：下午踢球去吧！A2：老王住院了？B：上午还在换草皮。A3:足球场安装了一个新门柱。.5.PolitenessPrincipleGrice’sCPdoesnotexplainwhyspeakersoftenviolateCP.GeoffreyLeech:ProfessorofLinguisticsandModernEnglishLanguageatLancasterUniversityfrom1974to2002.PrinciplesofPragmatics(1983):putsforwardPPtosaveCP..A:We’llmissBillandMary,won’twe?B:Well,we’llallmissBill.(violationofquantitymaxim).Self(自身)----referstothespeaker.Other(他人)----referstotheaddresseeorathirdperson,presentornot.Benefit(惠)&Cost(损)Generallyspeaking,ifthereisbenefit,theremustbecost..Forsomeactssuchasgivinganinvitation,apieceofadviceandanofferareconsideredpolite-natured,forotherisalwaysonthebeneficialside.Forotheractslikearequest,anorderandademandareconsideredimpolite-natured,forotherisalwaysonthecostside..TactMaximGenerosityMaximApprobationMaximModestyMaximAgreementMaximSympathyMaxim.TactMaxima)Minimizecosttootherb)Maximizebenefittoother]GenerosityMaxima)Minimizebenefittoselfb)Maximizecosttoself].把车借给我用两天。洗一洗这些衣服。把铅笔递一下。再来一杯啤酒。周末好好休息。把房间打扫一下。我想知道你是否有时间打扫一下房间。.ApprobationMaxima)Minimizedispraiseofotherb)MaximizepraiseofotherModestyMaxima)Minimizepraiseofselfb)Maximizedispraiseofself.A：我的西装怎么样？B：难看死拉。怎么说呢，不过我觉得颜色深了点。A：今天真倒霉！B：我说的吧，自找的。过去就算了，别再想拉。.AgreementMaxima)Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandotherb)MaximizeagreementbetweenselfandotherSympathyMaxima)Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandotherb)Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother.A：我提议大家明天到江边烧烤。B：我没意见。可以，但风太大啊。我不去，没意思。A：我的腿不方便。B：我知道，上次摔断了。那小心点，我来吧。.6.Post-GriceanDevelopmentsRelevanceTheory:DanSperber(JeanNicodInstitute)DeirdreWilson(UCL)TheQ-andR-principles:LaurenceHorn(Yale)TheQ-,I-andM-principles:StephenLevinson(MaxPlanck).6.1RelevanceTheory1986,1995AllGriceanmaxims,inc.theCPitself,shouldbereducedtoasingleprincipleofrelevance:‘Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.’.Ostensivecommunication:TheyagreewithGricethatcommunicationisnotsimplyamatterofencodinganddecoding,italsoinvolvesinference.Buttheymaintainthatinferencehasonlytodowiththehearer.Fromthespeaker'sside,communicationshouldbeseenasanactofmakingclearone'sintentiontoexpresssomething.Thisacttheycallostensiveact.Inotherwords,acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-inferential..Presumptionofoptimalrelevance:Initialversion:Anassumptionisrelevantinacontextifandonlyifithassomecontextualeffectinthatcontext.Butwhatexactlyiscontext?AllthebackgroundinfoSometimessomeinfomustbeexcluded—chosenrelevanceGenerallytheassumptionpeopleareprocessingisrelevant.Revisedversion:Anassumptionisrelevanttoanindividualatagiventimeifandonlyifitisrelevantinoneormoreofthecontextsavailabletothatindividualatthattime.Relevanceisnotjustapropertyofassumptionsinthemind,butalsoapropertyofphenomena(stimuli,e.g.utterances)intheenvironmentwhichleadtotheconstructionofassumptions..Acommunicatorcannotdirectlypresentanaudiencewithanassumption.Allaspeaker,orawriter,candoistopresentastimulusintheformofasound,orawrittenmark.Thepresentationofthisstimuluschangesthecognitiveenvironmentoftheaudience,makingcertainfactsmanifest,ormoremanifest.Asaresult,theaudiencecanmentallyrepresentthesefactsasstrongorstrongerassumptions,andevenusethemtoderivefurtherassumptions..Finalversion:Aphenomenonisrelevanttoanindividualifandonlyifoneormoreoftheassumptionsitmakesmanifestisrelevanttohim.Thus,bypresumptionofoptimalrelevanceismeant:Thesetofassumptions{I}whichthecommunicatorintendstomakemanifesttotheaddresseeisrelevantenoughtomakeitworththeaddressee'swhiletoprocesstheostensivestimulus.Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonethecommunicatorcouldhaveusedtocommunicate{I}..Everyutterancecomeswithapresumptionofthebestbalanceofeffortagainsteffect.Ontheonehand,theeffectsachievablewillneverbelessthanisneededtomakeitworthprocessing.Ontheotherhand,theeffortrequiredwillneverbemorethanisneededtoachievetheseeffects.Incomparisontotheeffectsachieved,theeffortneededisalwaysthesmallest.Thisamountstosaying“ofalltheinterpretationsofthestimuluswhichconfirmthepresumption,itisthefirstinterpretationtooccurtotheaddresseethatistheonethecommunicatorintendedtoconvey..Georgehasabigcat.Georgehasatiger,alion,ajaguar,etc.Georgehasatiger.Georgehasatigeroralion,I'mnotsurewhich.Georgehasafelid..Seconded.(1995):tworelevance-basedprinciplesCommunicativePrincipleofRelevance:Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.CognitivePrincipleofRelevance:Humancognitiontendstobegearedtothemaximisationofrelevance..Thepresumptionofoptimalrelevanceisrevisedasfollows:Theostensivestimulusisrelevantenoughforittobeworththeaddressee’sefforttoprocessit.Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonecompatiblewiththecommunicator’sabilitiesandpreferences..6.2TheQ-andR-principlesLaurenceHorn(1984):TowardaNewTaxonomyforPragmaticInterface:Q-BasedandR-BasedImplicature.LaurenceHorn(1988):PragmaticTheory..TheQ-principle:ThefirstofGrice'smaximofQuantity--Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).TheR-principle:TheMaximofRelationButthenewprinciplesaremoreextensivethantheGriceanmaxims..TheQ-principle(Hearer-based):MAKEYOURCONTRIBUTIONSUFFICIENT(cf.Quantity1)SAYASMUCHASYOUCAN(givenR)TheR-principle(Speaker-based):MAKEYOURCONTRIBUTIONNECESSARY(cf.Relation,Quantity2,Manner)SAYNOMORETHANYOUMUST(givenQ).Thehearer-basedQ-principleisasufficiencyconditioninthesensethatinformationprovidedisthemostthespeakerisableto.Forexample,(a)belowimplicates(b):(a)Someofmyfriendsarelinguists.(b)Notallofmyfriendsarelinguists..TheR-principleencouragesthehearertoinferthatmoreismeant.Typicalexamplesarespeechactslike:Canyoupassthesalt?.TheQ-principleisconcernedwiththecontent.Thespeakerwhofollowsthisprinciplesuppliesthesufficientinformation.TheR-principleisconcernedwiththeform.Thespeakerwhoemploysthisprincipleusestheminimalform,sothatthehearerisentitledtoinferthatthespeakermeansmorethanhesays..Example:negationusuallymeans‘lessthan’.Hedidn'teatthreecarrots.Heatelessthanthreecarrots.Metalinguisticnegation:Hedidn'teatTHREEcarrots.HeateFOURofthem.Youdidn'teatSOMEofthecookies—youateALLofthem.Itisn'tPOSSIBLEshe'llwin—it'sCERTAINshewill..Ididn'tbreakafingeryesterday.Ibrokeafinger,butitwasn'toneofmine.(Q-based)Ibrokeafingeryesterday.Ibrokeafingerofmineyesterday.(R-based).Johnhadadrink.Thesecretarysmiled.Johnhadanalcoholicdrink.Thefemalesecretarysmiled.Johndidn'thaveadrink—thatwasaShirleyTemple.*Mysecretarydidn'tsmile—Ihaveamalesecretary. .Hornarguesthatthisexceptionismoreapparentthanreal.Bothspeakers'intuitionandlexicographers'practicesuggestthattheimplicatureassociatedwithdrink,i.e.“alcoholicdrink”,hasbecomepartoftheconventionalmeaning,whilethatofsecretary,i.e.“femalesecretary”hasnot.Inotherwords,theinterpretationofdrinkinthesenseof“alcoholicdrink”isnolongeranimplicature..Synonymavoidance:Therearemanytermsformedwiththeadjectivepaleandcolourwords,suchas,palegreen,paleblue,paleyellow,butpaleredsoundsodd.Thisodditymaybeattributedtotheexistenceofthewordpink.Unlessonewantstodesignateacolourwhichispalerthanred,butnotyetaspaleaspink,thetermpaleredwouldnotbeused.Becauseoftheexistenceofpinktheuseofpaleredislimitedinawaythatpaleblueandpalegreenarenot..BlackBartkilledthesheriff.BlackBartcausedthesherifftodie.Leestoppedthecar.Leegotthecartostop..HornobservesthattheQ-basedandR-basedprinciplesoftendirectlycollide.“AspeakerobeyingonlyQwouldtendtosayeverythingsheknowsontheoff-chancethatitmightproveinformative,whileaspeakerobeyingonlyRwouldprobably,tobeonthesafeside,notopenhermouth.Infact,manyofthemaximclashesGriceandothershavediscusseddoinvolveQuantity1vs.Relation”..But“itisperhapsintheresolutionoftheconflictbetweenthemthattheyplaytheirmajorrole”.Hesuggeststhisresolutioncomesfromadivisionofpragmaticlabourasfollows:Theuseofamarked(relativelycomplexand/orprolix)expressionwhenacorrespondingunmarked(simpler,less“effortful”)alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedasconveyingamarkedmessage(onewhichtheunmarkedalternativewouldnotorcouldnothaveconveyed)..6.3TheQ-,I-andM-principlesStephenLevinson(1987):PragmaticsandtheGrammarofAnaphor:APartialPragmaticReductionofBindingandControlPhenomenaStephenLevinson(1989):ReviewofRelevancebySperberandWilson.TheQ-,I-andM-principlesareGrice'stwomaximsofQuantityandamaximofMannerreinterpretedneo-classically.ThemaximsofQuality,asisthecaseinHorn'stheory,arekeptintact.LevinsondoesnotagreewiththetreatmentinbothSperber&Wilson'sandHorn'saccountstosubsumethesecondmaximofQuantityunderaprincipleofrelevance,orrelation..Inhisview,themaximsofQuantityhavetodowiththequantityofinformation,whilerelevanceisameasureoftimelyhelpfulnesswithrespecttointeractionalgoals,andislargelyaboutthesatisfactionofothers'goalsininteraction,andthesatisfactionoftopicalandsequencingconstraintsindiscourse,asintheexpectationthatananswerwillfollowaquestion..Itisnot,atleastnotprimarily,aboutinformation.SoherenamesthesecondmaximofQuantitythePrincipleofInformativeness,orI-Principle;andthefirstmaximofQuantitythePrincipleofQuantity,orQ-Principle..TheM-principle:LevinsonmixesthepresentationofhisownideaswiththecriticismofHorn'sprinciples.HeaccusesHornoffailingtodrawadistinctionbetweentwokindsofminimization:asemanticminimizationandanexpressionminimization..Thesemantic,orcontent,minimizationisequivalenttosemanticgenerality:themoregeneraltermsaremoreminimalinmeaning,havingmorerestrictedconnotation(incontrasttothemoreextendeddenotation);andthelessgeneral,themorespecific,arelessminimal,moremaximal.Forexample,shipismoregeneralthanferry,flowerthanrose,animalthantiger.Thechoiceoftheformerinsteadofthelatterisaprocesstowardminimization..Theexpression,orform,minimizationissomemeasureofsurfacelengthandcomplexity.Itisconcernedwiththephoneticandmorphologicalmake-upofaterm.Thenormallystressedtermsaremoreminimalthantheirabnormallystressedcounterparts.Theshortertermsaremoreminimalthanlongerones,providedtheyaresynonymous,suchasfrequentandnotinfrequent,tostopacarandtocauseacartostop..OnlythesemanticminimizationhastodowiththeI-principle.Theexpressionminimization,incontrast,isthedomainoftheprincipleofmanner,asitconcernstheformofalinguisticunit,thewaytoexpresssomethingratherthanwhatisexpressed,orhowmuchisexpressed..Recently,Levinsoncallshisprinciples“heuristics”.Levinson(2000):PresumptiveMeaning.MIT.Heuristic1.Whatisn’tsaid,isn’t.Heuristic2.Whatissimplydescribedisstereotypicallyexemplified. Heuristic3.What’ssaidinanabnormalway,isn’tnormal;orMarkedmessageindicatesmarkedsituation. .Heuristic1:Q-Heuristic“moreorlesstransparentlyrelatedtoGrice’sfirstMaximofQuantity”Responsiblefortwotypesofimplicatures:scalarimplicaturesandclausalimplicaturesSomeoftheboyscame.(scalar)Notalltheboyscame.Ifeatingeggsisbadforyou,youshouldgiveupomelets.(clausal)Eatingeggsmaybebadforyou,oritmaynotbebadforyou..ScalarimplicaturesaretheimplicatureswhichinvolvetheQ-principleinHorn’ssense.Wordslikeallandsomeformascalarcontrastset,inwhichallisthemoreinformative,orstronger,term,andsomethelessinformative,orweaker,term..Clausalimplicaturesinvolvetheuseofdifferentclauses.Sinceeatingeggsisbadforyou,youshouldgiveupomelets.Eatingeggsmaybebadforyou,oritmaynotbebadforyou..Twoclausalalternates:Ifeatingeggsisbadforyou,youshouldgiveupomelets.Sinceeatingeggsisbadforyou,youshouldgiveupomelets.whichmaybeexpressedas<(sincep,q),(ifp,q)>Theclauseusingsinceisthemoreinformative,orstronger,alternate,andtheoneusingifthelessinformative,orweaker,alternate..Heuristic2:I-Heurisitc“mayberelateddirectlytoGrice’ssecondMaximofQuantity,...Theunderlyingideais,ofcourse,thatoneneednotsaywhatcanbetakenforgranted”.(a)Johnturnedthekeyandtheenginestarted.(b)Johnturnedthekey,andthentheenginestarted.Johnturnedthekey,thereforetheenginestarted.Johnturnedthekeyinordertostarttheengine..(a)Ifyoumowthelawn,I'llgiveyou$5.(b)Ifandonlyifyoumowthelawn,I'llgiveyou$5. (a)Johnunpackedthepicnic.Thebeerwaswarm.(b)Thebeerwaspartofthepicnic. (a)Johnsaid“Hello”tothesecretaryandthenhesmiled.(b)Johnsaid“Hello”tothefemalesecretaryandthenJohnsmiled. .(a)HarryandSueboughtapiano.(b)Theyboughtittogether,notoneeach. (a)Johncameinandhesatdown.(b)John1cameinandhe1satdown..Heuristic3:M-HeuristiccanberelateddirectlytoGrice’smaximofManner(‘Beperspicuous’),specificallytohisfirstsubmaxim‘avoidobscurityofexpression’andhisfourth‘avoidprolixity’...Theunderlyingideahereisthatthereisanimplicitoppositionorparasiticrelationshipbetweenoursecondandthirdheuristics:whatissaidsimply,briefly,inanunmarkedwaypicksupthestereotypicalinterpretation;ifincontrastamarkedexpressionisused,itissuggestedthatthestereotypicalinterpretationshouldbeavoided..Thus,(a)belowshouldbeinterpretedinthestereotypicalwaybytheI-Heuristic,saytheprobabilityisn,then(b)shouldbeinterpretedinthemarkedwaybytheM-Heuristic,i.e.,theprobabilityislessthann.(a)It’spossiblethattheplanewillbelate.(b)It’snotimpossiblethattheplanewillbelate..Inthesameway,theuseofalongeralternativetoasimplecausativeverbsuggestssomedeviationfromthenormalsituation.Billstoppedthecar.Billdiditinthestereotypicalmannerwiththefootpedal.Billcausedthecartostop.Billdiditindirectly,notinthenormalway,e.g.,bytheuseoftheemergencybrake..Ifthespeakerusesamarkedexpressionthemaninsteadofanunmarkedexpressionhe,thenJohnandthemanwillnotbecoreferential.Johncameinandthemanlaughed. Thereisstillalongwaytogobeforewefindasolutiontoalltheproblemswehaveinthestudyoflanguageinuse,andtherearenewattemptstoimproveonalltheseprinciples..