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医学英语翻译医学英语翻译Unit1TheHumancomplex—ANever–failingSourceofWonderment“Inmyview,”wroteThomasJeffersonin1814,“noknowledgecanbemoresatisfactorytoamanthatofhisownframe,itsparts,theirfunctionsandactions.”DistinguishedthinkersbeforeandsinceJeffersonhaveheldthisbelief,butcurio...

医学英语翻译
医学英语翻译Unit1TheHumancomplex—ANever–failingSourceofWonderment“Inmyview,”wroteThomasJeffersonin1814,“noknowledgecanbemoresatisfactorytoamanthatofhisownframe,itsparts,theirfunctionsandactions.”DistinguishedthinkersbeforeandsinceJeffersonhaveheldthisbelief,butcuriously,itisnotonethattheaveragepersonwholeheartedlyshares.Man’sattitudetowardhisownbody—hissinglemostpreciouspossession—isdecidedlyambivalent.Atoneandthesametimeheisfascinatedbyitandfearfulofit,partlyinechoofancienttaboos,partlyintheconvictionthatthebodyistoocomplicatedtounderstand.“在我看来,”托马斯杰佛逊于1814年写道:“对人来说,没有什么知识会比了解自身的架构、部件、以及他们的功能和运动更能使他满足。”在杰佛逊前后的杰出思想家均持有这个观点,但激发人好奇心的是,这个观点并不为普罗大众所由衷地接受。人们对自己的身体(这个对他自身来说最为宝贵的财富)的态度其实是充满矛盾的。一方面,人们对身体感到非常着迷,另一方面,却又对其深感敬畏,这在一定程度上是受古代禁忌的影响,也在一定程度上反映了人们确信肉体过于复杂而难以理解。Thepossibleapproachestoastudyofthebodyarelegion.Tothecynic,thebodyisnomorethanatenementofclay;tothepoet,apalaceofthesoul;tothephysician,anall-too-ailinghulk.Thepsychiatristseesitasahousingforthemindandpersonality.Thegeneticistseesitasaperpetuatorofitsownkind.Thebiologistseesitasanorganismwhichcanalterthefutureasaresultoftheexperienceofthepast.研究人体的方法可谓纷繁多样。对愤世嫉俗者来说,人体贱如粘土陋室;对吟诗作赋者来说,人体尊如灵魂的宫殿;对内科医生来说,人体是脆弱多病的躯壳。精神病学家视其为理智和个性的居所。遗传学家当其为自我繁衍的机器。生物学家视其为能借过往的经验来改变未来的生命体。Allthespecializedscientificviewsofthebodyarevalid.All,however,muststartfromthesamepremise:anawarenessofthebody’sbasicstructureandfunctions—itsanatomyandphysiology.Andthebedrockprincipleofourpresentunderstandingofthebodyisthatalllivingmatteriscomposedofcellsbasicallysimilarinstructureandfunction.所有有关人体的专业科学的观点都是有依据的,然而,所有的这些都必须有同一个前提:那就是对研究人体的基本结构和功能的解剖学和生理学的认识。我们对身体的了解的基本原则是,所有生物都是由结构和功能基本相似的细胞构成的。ASwarmofTinySpecialistsStudiesofthecell—whatitis,whatitdoesandhowitreproducesitself—haverevealedittobeafantasticallycomplexworldinitself.Oneofthemajorwondersofthecellisthedisparitybetweenitsminutenessandtheprodigiousnessofitsactivity.Eachcellissotinythatmillionsofthemmaybefoundinahalf-inchcubeofhumanbodytissue.Yeteachcomprisesanalmostunimaginablybusychemicallaboratorywithahighlyordereddivisionoflabor.关于细胞的研究——细胞是什么,它是干什么的和如何复制的——已经 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 明细胞本身就是一个令人难以置信的复杂世界。细胞的一大精妙之处在于其体积之微细与其活性之大之间的反差。每个细胞是如此渺小,以至于在一个半英寸立方体大小的人体组织中可能发现数以万计的细胞。然而,每个细胞都堪比一个繁忙到难以想象的并有着高度的分工的化学实验室。Thecellhastwomainparts:anucleus,containingthegeneticmaterialdeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA),andasurroundingsemifluidcytoplasm.Boundingthecytoplasmisthecellmembrane,whichkeepsthecellcontentsinandundesirablematerialout,yetpermitspassageofbothpropernutrientsandwastes.Thenucleus—cellheadquarters—governsthemajoractivitiesofthecytoplasm;itsfinesthour,however,comesatreproductiontime,whenchromosomescontainingDNAsplit.Itisinthecytoplasm,thatthecell’sdaytodaybusinessiscarriedon.Eachofitsvariouscomponents,ororganelles,isaspecialistofsurpassingskill.Onetypebreaksdownthefoodgivenentrybythecellmembraneandconvertsitintoenergy.Anotherprovidesthesiteforthesynthesisofprotein—alongwithreproduction,amajorfunctionofmostcells.Anotherpackagesthemanufacturedproteinfortransportwhereverneededinthebody.细胞有两个主要部分:含有遗传物质脱氧核糖核酸(DNA)的细胞核,以及周围呈半流质的细胞质。包围着细胞质的是细胞膜,它包含着细胞内容物,并将不需要的物质隔离在外,然而它允许营养物质和代谢废物通过。细胞核——细胞的控制中心——调控细胞质的主要活动;然而,它最美妙的时刻是当细胞分裂时,包含DNA的染色体分裂繁殖。细胞日复一日的工作是在细胞质中完成的。各种组件或细胞器,都是一个个卓越的技术专家。其中一个功能是分解从细胞膜进入细胞的营养物质,并将其转化成能量。另一个功能是提供蛋白质合成的场所——伴随着细胞复制的全过程,这是大多数细胞的主要功能。再一个功能是加工包装制造的蛋白质,并将其运输到身体所需的各个部位。Tooperateefficiently,thecellthusrequiresspecifichelpfromthebodyasawhole:foodtoproviderawmaterialforthereleaseofenergy,oxygentohelpbreakdownthefood,watertotransportinorganicsubstanceslikecalciumandsodium.Onceitsneedsaresatisfied,thecellitselfprovidestheintricatemechanismformaintainingthebalanceessentialtokeepitinkilter—inshort,tokeepthebodyaliveandhealthy.为了工作的高效运行,细胞需要得到身体的特定的帮助,总的来说:食物提供可释放能量的原材料,氧气帮助分解食物,水用于运输无机物,比如钙、钠。一旦这些需要得到满足,细胞自身就会通过错综复杂的机制,来保持正常运作所必须的平衡确使身体处于正常状态——简而言之,就是保持身体的活力和健康。Cellssharecertaincommoncharacteristics,butmostofthebody'scellsdevelopspecializedfeaturesandabilities.Thecellsthatformbonecollectcalciumsalts;thesecellsarelockedtogetherinsolidchunks,immobile.Bycontrast,thewhitecellsoftheblood,whichfightoffinvadingbacteria,roamfreelyaboutthebody.Othercellsmakespecialchemicalsforthebody'suse—thehormonesproducedintheendocrineglands,orthedigestiveenzymespouredintotheintestinefromthepancreas.Stillothercellsformtheincrediblythinmembranesinthelungorkidneythatpermitthefilteringorexchangeofdissolvedbodyfuelsandwastes.细胞拥有一定的共性,但是大部分的人体细胞具有他们特化的特征和功能。那些构成骨的细胞能沉积钙盐,这些细胞连锁成坚固而无活动能力的块状固体。相比之下,血液中那些可以抵抗细菌侵略的白细胞,却能在身体内自由流动。某些细胞能产生特殊的化学物质供身体使用——如内分泌腺产生的激素,由胰腺分泌并进入肠道的消化酶。还有些细胞在肺或肾脏形成非常薄的膜,使其能够过滤或交换已被溶解的身体燃料和废物。Accordingtotheirparticularfeaturesandtheirintendedfunctions,cellsformdifferenttypesoftissue:bone,muscle,blood,nervetissue,connectivetissueandepithelium.Thecellsthatmakeupeachofthesearenotidentical,butbelongtogetherbyreasonofunderlyingsimilarities.根据它们各自的特点和所要求的功能,细胞形成不同种类的组织:骨、肌肉、血液、神经、结缔组织和上皮组织。构成这些组织的细胞是不同的,但因潜在的相似之处而同属一类。Forexample,thecellsofbowelmusclearerounderandshorterthanthelong,spindlycellsoflegmuscle,yetbothkindscontractforcefullywhenstimulatedbyachemicalorelectricalimpulse.Thecellsthatmakeupbonetissuediffersufficientlytomakebrittleboneinoneplaceandspongy,resilientcartilageinanother,yetallstorethesaltswhichgiveboneitscalcifiedstructure.Theloosenetworkofcellsthatsupportsthefattypaddingundertheskinandthedensecapsuleofcellsthatholdsthekneejointinplacearebothformsofconnectivetissue.Allnervecells,variedastheymaybe,receiveandconductelectrochemicalimpulses.Allbloodcell,variedastheymaybe,floatfreelyinacirculatingfluid,plasma.例如,肠道的肌纤维比腿部细长的肌纤维更圆、更短,但是当这两种细胞都受到化学或电刺激时,它们都会发生强有力地收缩。构成骨组织的细胞是有相当程度的不同,它们可以在一处形成脆骨,而在另一处形成疏松而有弹性的软骨;然而,所有的细胞能储存钙盐,使骨成为钙化的结构。支撑皮下脂肪的疏散网状细胞和维持膝关节在恰当位置的密集胶囊状细胞,都共同参与构成了结缔组织。尽管可能有所不同,所有的神经细胞都能接受并传导电化学冲动;尽管可能有所不同,所有的血细胞都能在循环流体—血浆中自由地漂浮。Themostversatilecellsarethoseofthevariouskindsofepithelium.Formingthebody’sexternalcoating—theskin—epithelialcellsprotectthingsinsidefromthingsoutside.Theyalsoformtheliningofthemouth,stomachandbowel,theinnersurfaceofbloodvessels,andthemembranesthatpermitthelungstobreatheandthekidneystoexcrete.Overthecorneaoftheeyetheybecomeasortoftransparentwindshield,topermitthefreeentryoflighttotheretina.Otherepithelialcellssecreteaprotectivemucustokeepintestines,lungsandnasalpassagesfromdryingout.Stillothersmanufacturepowerfulhormonesthatregulatethebody’schemicalreactions.最万能的细胞是各种各样的上皮细胞。它们共同构成人体的外套—皮肤,上皮细胞保护皮肤里面的物质不受外界侵害。它们还构成口腔、胃黏膜、肠黏膜、血管内皮和参与肺呼吸以及肾排泄的膜。覆布于眼角膜上的上皮细胞,它们变成一种透明的挡风玻璃,使得光束自由地进入到视网膜。其他的上皮细胞分泌保护性的粘液保持肠、肺和鼻腔不至于变干燥。还有一些上皮细胞能够产生高效能的激素来调节人体化学反应。InterlockandOverlapThetissuescomprisethestructuralmaterialsofthebody’sorgansystems.These,inturn,maybecomparedtoanumberofcorporationswithinterlockingdirectorates.Indeedtheinterdependenceoftheorgansystemshasledtosomedisagreementoverhowmanythereare.ThevenerableGray’sAnatomy—usedbymedicalstudentsformorethan100years—lists10systems:nervous,digestive,respiratory,vascular,urogenital,endocrine,skeletal,muscular,jointsandexternalcovering.Otherauthoritiescategorizejointsandbonestogetherbecausetheyaresocloselyrelated,orseparatethesenseorgansfromthenervoussystem,orlumpalltheinternalorgansrespiratory,digestive,endocrineandurogenital—undertheresoundingtitleofsplanchnologicalsystem.人体器官系统的物质结构由组织组成。换言之,这就像互相之间交叉任职的董事的若干公司。事实上这些相互依赖的器官系统在他们数量多少的问题上也曾引发了一些争论。备受推崇的Gray解剖学-曾被被医学生使用了上百年的时间-列举出了十个系统:神经系统,消化系统,呼吸系统,血管系统,泌尿生殖系统,内分泌系统,骨骼系统,肌肉系统,关节和皮肤系统。而另一些权威人士则因关节和骨头是密不可分的而将他们归为一类,或是将感觉器官从神经系统分离出来,或是将所有的内脏器官-呼吸器官,消化器官,内分泌器官以及泌尿器官混在一块,冠以内脏系统这一声势浩大的名称。Farmoreimportantthantheirlabelsisthefactthatthesystemsinteract;thebreakdownofonecandamageordestroytheothers.Ideally,ofcourse,allsystemswoulddotheirjobsperfectlyallthetime.Unfortunately,naturepermitsnosuchperfection.Allofthemsufferfrommalfunctionsatonepointoranother.Thewonderisthatbreakdownsaretheexceptionratherthantherule.然而比给他们的命名更为重要的是他们各个系统之间会相互影响这个事实,其中一个系统的衰弱可以损害或毁灭其他系统。当然,理想状态下,所有的系统都是能一直完美地执行他们的任务的。而不幸的是,自然状态下是不可能出现这么完美的情况的。在所有系统当中,他们总会因这个方面或那个方面的故障而受到损害。神奇的是,出现故障倒是例外而不是常规情况Withinthehealthybodyitselfthereisnoabsolutecriterionfor"normal".Variationsoccurnotonlybetweenindividuals,butwithintheindividualhimself,sometimesfromhourtohour,dependingonhisactivityatthetime.Doctorsprivatelyjokethatevenababooncouldgetthroughmedialschoolifhelearnedtosay,withenoughprofundity,"Itvaries."Oneofthepractitioner’smajorheadachesistodeterminewhetherapatient’sconditionreflectsanactualillnessormerelyavariationwithinabroadrangeofnormal.Thebreadthofthisrangemaybeindicatedbyafewstatistics.Theweightofthehealthyheartisconsideredtobeanywherebetween240and360grams;theweightofthehealthyliver,between1,000and2,000grams;thelevelofsugarintheblood,between70and130milligrams.在健康的人体内对于“正常”也没有确切的标准可言。变化不仅仅发生在个体之间,也可以发生在个体内部,有时候每个小时都不同,这要看他们当时的运动状态。医生私下开玩笑说,即使是一个狒狒,它也可以在医学院校毕业,前提是他学会很深沉地说“因人而异”。令从医者最头痛的问题之一就是要确认一个人的情况是真正生病了还是处于正常的变化范围之中。有些范围内的波动可能是已经被一些统计资料所确认的。健康的心脏重量范围是240~360g,健康的肝脏重量在1000~2000g之间,血糖浓度水平是70~130mg。Unit2ReadingAHumanAnatomyThehumanbodyisaremarkablycomplexandefficientmachine.Ittakesinandabsorbsoxygenthroughtherespiratorysystem.Thentheoxygen-enrichedbloodisdistributedthroughthecardiovascularsystemtoalltissues.Thedigestivesystemconvertsdigestiblefoodtoenergyanddisposesoftherest.Theskeletal-muscularsystemgivesformtothebody.Andcoveringalmosttheentiremassistheskin,thelargestorganofthebody.Thescienceofthestructureofthiscomplicated”machine”iscalledanatomy.人体是一个非常复杂并且高效的机器。它通过呼吸系统吸入并且吸收氧气。然后这富含氧的血液通过心血管系统被分布到所有的组织。消化系统将能消化的食物转变成能量并且将剩余的废物排出。骨骼-肌系统组成了人体的轮廓。全身最大的器官——皮肤,几乎覆盖整个躯体。这门研究机体复杂构造的科学被称为“解剖学”Oneofthemajorsystemsistheskeletal-muscularsystem.Thebodyissupportedandgivenshapebythisstructure,consistingofmorethan200bonesandthemusclesandtendonswhichareconnectedtothem.Theyarestrongbutcanbendattheirjoins.Theyalsoserveasashield,protectingthevitalinternalorgansfrominjury.主要的系统之一是骨骼-肌系统。人体由这个结构作支撑并构成形态,这一结构由200多块骨和肌肉及与之相连的肌腱组成。它们很坚固但是能够通过弯曲关节。它们也能像防护物一样,保护内部重要的器官免受伤害。Bonesareasstrongassteelbutmuchlighterandmoreflexible.Theyarecomposedofminerals,organicmatter,andwater,heldtogetherbyacement-likesubstancecalledcollagen,andarefilledwithredandyellowbonemarrow.Theredmarrowproducestheredbloodcellsusedthroughoutthebodytotransportoxygen,whiletheyellowmarrowconsistsoffatcells.Atoughmembranecalledtheperiosteumcoversmostofthebonesurfaceandallowsbonestobenourishedbyblood.人体的骨骼像钢铁一样坚韧但是骨骼更轻更柔韧。这些骨骼由矿物质,有机物,水构成---它们通过一种被称为胶原的类似结合剂的物质连结起来,并且充满了红骨髓和黄骨髓。红骨髓产生一种能够运输氧气到达全身各处的血红细胞,然而黄骨髓由脂肪细胞组成。有一种坚韧的膜被称为骨膜,它覆盖了大部分骨的表面,使骨头能得到血液的滋养。Amajorbonestructureinthebodyisthevertebral(spinal)column.Itrunsupanddownthebackandprotectsthespinalcord,wheremanyofthemajornervesarelocated.Itiscomposedofbonyvertebraewhichareheldtogetherbyligamentofconnectivetissueandseparatedfromeachotherbyspinaldiscs.Atthetopofthevertebralcolumnistheskull,whichsurroundsandprotectsthebrain.Attachedtothevertebralcolumnbelowtheneckarethe12pairsofribs,comprisingtheribcage.Atthebottomisthesacrum,whichconnectsthevertebralcolumntothepelvis.Bonesareunitedbyjointsandheldtogetherbyligaments.身体中一个主要的骨骼结构是脊柱。它贯穿人体背部并且保护脊髓,有很多重要的神经位于这里。脊柱是由属于结缔组织的韧带连接起来的椎骨组成的,并且相邻椎骨由椎间盘分隔开。在脊柱的顶部是颅骨,颅骨包裹并且保护脑。在颈部以下连着脊柱的是12对肋骨,共同构成了胸廓。脊柱的底部是骶骨,骶骨把脊柱和骨盆连接在一起。骨骼通过关节联合并且通过韧带连结。Musclesarespecialfibroustissuesfoundthroughoutthebody.Theycontrolmovementandmanyorganicfunctionsbycontractinginresponsetonervesignals.Skeletalmusclesarecalledvoluntarybecausetheycanbeconsciouslycontrolled.Theyareattachedtobonesbytoughfibroustissuescalledtendons.Othermuscles,suchasthestomachmuscledandtheheart,areinvoluntaryandareoperatedautomaticallybythecentralnervoussystem.肌肉是遍布身体的特殊纤维组织。它们通过收缩来回应神经信号从而控制运动和许多器官功能.骨骼肌能被意识控制,所以称为随意肌。它们通过一个叫肌腱的结实纤维组织紧紧附着于骨上。其他肌肉,例如胃肌和心肌,都是非随意肌,由中枢神经系统控制,自动运作.Themostimportantmusclesinthebodyistheheart.Withouttheheartanditscardiovascular(circulatory)system,humanlifewouldnotbepossible.Theheartisroughlythesizeoftwofists.Itcontractsatanaveragerateof72timesperminuteornearly38,000,000timesayear.Theserhythmiccontractionsarecalledthepulserateandcanbefeltintheradialarteryofthewrist.心肌是人体最重要的肌肉,没有心肌和它的心血管循环系统,人类将不可能生存。心脏大概两个拳头那么大,平均每分钟收缩72次或接近38000000次每年。这种有节奏的收缩称之为脉搏,并且可以在手腕的桡动脉处感觉到。Thehumanheartconsistsoffourchambers,twoatriaandtwoventricles.Eachismadeupofseverallayersofcardiacmusclesarrangedincirclesandpirals.Duringthecontractionphase,calledthesystole,oxygenatedbloodispumpedoutoftheleftventricleintotheaortaandfromtherethroughthearteriestoallorgansofthebody.Carbondioxide,awasteproductofthisprocess,iscollectedintheblood.Thebloodispassedbacktotherightatriumthroughtheveinsandthevenacavaduringthediastole(orrelaxation)periodoftheheart.Fromthere,itispumpedintotherightventricleandtothepulmonaryarterytobesenttothelungswherecarbondioxideisremovedandoxygenisadded.人的心脏由四个腔室组成,两个心房和两个心室,每个腔都是由许多层心肌环绕,盘旋排列而成。(心脏)在收缩阶段,被称为收缩期,富含氧的血液从左心室泵出进入主动脉,然后从那里通过动脉运送到全身所有的器官。二氧化碳是这个过程中产生的废物,通过血液收集。血液在心脏舒张期通过静脉和腔静脉回流到右心房。从那,血液被泵入右心室并通过肺动脉被送到肺部,在那二氧化碳被移除,氧气被加入。Therestofthesystemconsistsofarterioles(smallarteries),venules(smallveins),andcapillaries,thesmallestofbloodvessels.Intotal,therearemorethan70000milesofbloodvesselsinthehumanbody!Thecardiovascularsystemalsocarrieshormoneswhicharesecretedbyglandsoftheendocrinesystemdirectlyintothebloodstream.Thesehormonescontrolmanyfunctionsofthebody.Thethyroidgland,forexample,secretsthyroxin,whichcontrolstherateatwhichenergyisproduced(themetabolicrate).心血管系统也参与运输一些由内分泌系统的腺体分泌且直接进入血浆的激素。这些激素控制身体的许多功能。例如,甲状腺分泌甲状腺素,这种激素控制着能量产生的速度(代谢率)。Therespiratorysystemstartsatthenasalpassage,whereairisbreathedinduringinspiration.Theretheairisfilteredanditstemperatureregulated.Itpassesthroughthelarynxandtracheaintothebronchiandbronchioles,andendsinlittleairpocketscalledalveoliwithinthelungs.Theusedbloodiscleansedofcarbondioxide,whichisexpelledintheprocessknownasexpiration.Thecleansedbloodisthenoxygenatedandredistributedalongthecirculatorysystem.Theentireprocessiscalledrespirationandoccursattherateofabout16to20timesperminute.呼吸系统始于鼻腔通道,即吸气时空气进入的地方。在那里(鼻腔)空气被过滤,温度被调节。然后,空气通过喉和气管进入支气管和细支气管,最后进入肺部被称作肺泡的小气泡里面。被用过的血液清除二氧化碳并通过呼气过程排出。净化后的血液随后被氧化并且随着循环系统被重新分配。这整个过程称为呼吸,它发生的频率在每分钟16到20次之间。ThelargestorganinthebodyistheoutercoveringcalledSkin.(theaveragemanabout20squarefeetofit.)Theskinplusitsassociatedstructures(hair,nails,sebaceousandsweatglands,andspecializedsensoryreceptorsthatenablethebodytobeawareoftouch,cold,heat,pain,andpressure)makeuptheintegumentarysystem.Skinprotectsthebodyfrommicrobesandotherimpurities,preventsthelossofbodyfluids,andregulatesbodytemperature.Threelayersoftissuemakeuptheskin-theepidermis,thedermis,andthesubcutis(subcutaneouslayer)Theepidermisisinconstantgrowth,withitsouterlayerofdeadcellscontinuouslybeingreplacedasnewcellsareformedinthelowerlayer.Hair,fingernails,andtoenailsarespecializedformsofepidermis.Thecoloringpigmentcalledmelaninisalsofoundintheepidermis.Themiddlelayer(ordermis)isthelocationfortwomaintypesofglands-sweatglandsandoilglands.Theinnermostsubcutiscontainsfatcells,bloodvessels,andnerves.人体最大的器官就是包裹在人体表层的皮肤(一般人的皮肤面积平均约为20平方英尺)。皮肤加上与之相关的结构(头发,指甲,皮脂腺和汗腺,以及专门能使身体感受触摸,冷,热,痛苦和压力的感受器)共同组成了皮肤系统。皮肤能保护机体免受微生物和其他杂质的伤害,防止体液流失,及调节体温。三层组织组成皮肤--表皮,真皮,和皮下组织(皮下层)。表皮是在不断增长的,在表皮下层新形成的细胞会不断地替代外层死亡的细胞。头发,指甲和脚趾甲都是表皮的特化形式。在表皮中也发现了被称为黑色素的着色色素。中间层(或真皮层)是皮肤的两种主要腺体,汗腺和皮脂腺的所在地。最里面的皮下组织包含脂肪细胞,血管和神经。Anothermajorbodycomplexisthedigestivesystem,whichprocessesthefoodsothatitcanbeusedforenergy.Theprocessbeginsinthemouth,wherefoodischoppedandcrushedbytheteeth.Inthemouth,saliva,excretedbythesalivaryglands,providesenzymesthathelptobreakdownthefood`scarbohydrates.Thistakingoffoodintothebodyfordigestioniscalledingestion.另一个主要的身体复合体是消化系统,该系统对食物进行加工处理,以便食物能被作为能量使用。该过程开始于口腔,食物被牙齿嚼碎和粉碎。在口腔里,由唾液腺分泌的唾液提供的酶有助于分解食物中的碳水化合物。这种为了消化而获取食物进入身体称为摄入。Afterfoodhasbeenchewed,itpassesthroughtheesophagusintothestomach.Peristalticmovementsinthewallsoftheesophagushelppushthefoodalongthealimentarycanal.Themuscularwallsofthestomachcontinuethemixingprocesswhilesecretinghydrochloricacidfromtheglandsinthestomachlining.After30minutestothreehoursinthestomach,thefoodisconvertedintoasemiliquidstateandpassesintothesmallintestine,atubeabout20feetlonglocatedinthelowerabdomen.Here,enzymesfrompancreaticfluidandbilefromthelivercompletethedigestiveprocess.Nutrientsareabsorbedintothebloodthroughthevilli,whichlinethewallsofthedigestiveorgans.Whatcannotbeabsorbedispassedoutthroughthelargeintestineasfeces.Liquidwastesareeliminatedthroughtheurinarysystem.Theyarepickedupbythebloodandremovedbythekidneys.Fromtheretheypassthroughtheureter,bladder,andurethra,andareexcretedfromthebodyasurine.食物被嚼碎后经过食管进入胃。食道壁的蠕动有利于把食物推向消化道中。胃壁肌肉在此过程继续搅拌同时盐酸从胃粘膜中的腺体分泌出来。在胃里经过30分钟—3小时,食物转换成半液体状态,进入小肠,一条长约20英尺长,位于下腹部的管道。在这里,来自胰液的酶和来自肝脏的胆汁完成消化过程。营养物质通过排列于消化器官壁的绒毛被吸收进血液。那些不能被吸收的作为粪便通过大肠被排出。液体废物通过泌尿系统被消除。它们被血液带走,然后被肾移除。从那里它们再经过输尿管,膀胱,和尿道,然后以尿的形式从身体排出。Closelyassociatedwiththeurinarysystemisthereproductivesystem,bywhichhumanlifeiscarriedontofuturegenerations.Spermcellsareproducedinthetesticlesofthemaleandejaculatedthroughthepenisintothefemalevagina.Thefertilizationofthefemale’sovum(egg)bythemale’sspermiscalledconception.Itusuallyoccursinoneofthefallopiantubes,whichthespermreachesthroughactivemovementfromtheplaceofdeposition.Normally,thefertilizedeggthentravelstotheuteruswhereitbecomesanembryo,isimplanted,anddevelopsforabout280days(untilchildbirth).与泌尿系统紧密联系的是生殖系统,通过生殖系统人类生命得以世代延续。精子细胞在男性睾丸里产生,并通过阴茎射精进入女性阴道。女性的卵子与男性的精子结合叫做受精.受精通常发生在其中一条输卵管中,精子从存放处通过主动的运动到达输卵管。在正常情况下,受精卵接着游移到子宫,在此植入并变成胚胎,然后发育约280天左右(直至分娩)。Thenervoussystemcontrolsallothersystemsandbodilymovements.Nervescarrysensoryimpulsestothecentralnervoussystemandmotorimpulsesfromthecentralnervoussystem.Mostimpulsesarethosethatcontrolmuscles.Sensoryimpulsesaffectthesensesthatenablehumanbeingstofeel,see,taste,andsoforth.神经系统控制着其他所有系统和身体运动。神经将感觉冲动传至中枢神经系统,并将运动冲动从中枢神经系统传出。大部分运动冲动控制着肌肉,而感觉冲动影响感官,这些感官能使人类去感知,去看,去品尝等等。Thenervoussystemisdividedintothecentralnervoussystem(thebrainandspinalcord)andtheperipheralnervoussystem,whichconsistofthenervesthatconnectmusclesandsensoryorganswiththecentralnervoussystem.Thecentralnervoussystemisresponsibleforsendingimpulsestothevoluntarymuscles.Theautonomicsystem,apartoftheperipheralnervoussystem,regulatestheinvoluntarymusclesandorgans神经系统分为中枢神经系统(脑和脊髓)和周围神经系统,包括把肌肉和感觉器官与中枢神经系统连接起来的神经。中枢神经系统负责把冲动传递给随意肌。自主神经系统即周围神经系统的一部分,调节不随意肌和器官。Thebrainisnotonlythemostimportantcomponentofthenervoussystem;itisalsothecontrollerofallbodilyactivities,thoughts,andemotions.Itiscomposedofthepons,medullaoblongata,cerebellum,andcerebrum.Thecerebellumistheareaofthebrainthatcoordinatesthevoluntarymuscles;themedullaoblongatacontrolstheinvoluntarymuscles;theponsiswheremanyimportantnervesoriginate.脑不仅是神经系统中最重要的组成成分,而且是躯体活动、思维和情感的控制者。它由脑桥、延髓、小脑、大脑组成。小脑是脑中协调随意肌的部位,延髓控制不随意肌,脑桥是许多重要神经的起源处。Itisthecerebrumthatgiveshumanstheirabilitytothink,remember,andconceptualize.Itisdividedverticallyintotwohalvesknownastherightandlefthemispheres.Thelefthemisphereprocessesverbalfunctions,whiletherighthemisphereisinvolvedinnonverbalactivitiesandistheseatofhumancreativity.Manyscientistsbelievethat,ineachindividual,oneofthetwohemispheresisdominant,andthattheindividualhasgreaterintellectualstrengthinthedominanthemisphere.正是大脑赋予了人以思考,保持记忆和形成概念的能力。它纵向可分为左右两个半球。左半球处理语言功能,而右半球涉及非语言活动并且它是人类创造力的所在地。很多科学家相信,在每个个体的两个大脑半球中有一个占优势的,并且那个占有优势的大脑半球有较大的智力潜能。Itisamazinghowwelleachsystemfunctionsandcoordinateswithothersystemstoenablehumanstolive,reproduce,andcreate.令人感到神奇的是每个系统的功能以及各个系统之间的协调配合,使人类得以生活、繁殖和创造。Unit3BodydefensemechanismsAlthoughallpathogensposepotentialthreatsiftheygainentrytothebody,thechancesofthisoccurringareactuallyquitesmall.Theymustfirstovercomeanumberofeffectivebarriers,manyofwhichwereestablishedinthebodypriortobirth.尽管所有的病原体如果进入到身体后都会造成潜在的威胁,但实际上这个情况发生的可能性是非常小的。它们必须先克服一系列有效的屏障,其中许多是在出生之前就已经建立的。TheskinandbodyliningsThefirstofthesebarriersistheskinitself.Inordertopenetratethroughtheouterlayerofskin,thepathogenmustfirstsurvivetheacidityoftheskin,whichnormallydestroysmostformsofbacteria.Tears,saliva,andperspirationcontainchemicalsthatkillbacteria.Eveniftheorganismsurvivesthisinitiallineofdefense,itmustthenfindarouteofentrythroughhairfollicles,breaksintheskinduetoinjury,sweatglands,ornormalbodyopenings.Havinggainedinitialentry,thepathogenmustthenescapetheinternalmucosaofthebodylinings.Thismucosaisaconstantlymoving,stickymassthattrapsorganisms,muchlikeflypaper.Cilia,tinyhair
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