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URANIUM ENRICHMENT Just Plain Facts to Fuel an Informed Debate on Nuclear Proliferation and Nuclear Power Arjun Makhijani, Ph.D. Lois Chalmers Brice Smith, Ph.D. Prepared by Institute for Energy and Environmental Research for the Nuclear Policy Research Institute 15 October 2004 Reprinted, with revisions and minor corrections, March 2005. Revisions to the original text can be found on the Web at http://www.ieer.org/errata.html. 2 Table of Contents 1. Uranium Enrichment – Introduction ..........................................................................................................5 2. Uranium Enrichment and Depleted Uranium – Basics: Science ...............................................................6 3. Uranium Enrichment technologies.............................................................................................................8 4. Uranium Enrichment – the present situation............................................................................................16 Appendix 1: Uranium: Its Uses and Hazards...............................................................................................30 Appendix 2: Uranium Enrichment and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.....................................35 Appendix 3: Depleted Uranium in the United States...................................................................................37 Reference List ..............................................................................................................................................42 Tables Table 1: Nuclear Weapons States - Uranium Enrichment, Military and Commercial Table 2: Uranium Enrichment Worldwide 3 4 1. Uranium Enrichment – Introduction There is one element that occurs in nature that has been the raw material for nuclear bombs: uranium, chemical symbol U.1 Uranium occurs in nature as a mixture of three different isotopes – that is, three different atomic weights that have virtually the same chemical properties, but different nuclear properties (see Appendix 1: Uranium: Its Uses and Hazards). These isotopes are U-234, U-235, and U-238. The first is a highly radioactive trace component found in natural uranium, but it is not useful in any applications; the second isotope is the only fissile material2 that occurs in nature in significant quantities, and the third is the most plentiful isotope (99.284 percent of the weight of a sample of natural uranium is U-238), but it is not fissile. U-238 can, however, be split by high energy neutrons, releasing large amounts of energy and is therefore often used to enhance the explosive power of thermonuclear, or hydrogen, bombs. Because of the presence of small quantities of U-235, natural uranium can sustain a chain reaction under certain conditions, and therefore can be used as a fuel in certain kinds of reactors (graphite-moderated reactors and heavy water3 reactors, the latter being sold commercially by Canada). For the most common reactor type in use around the world today, which uses ordinary water as a coolant and moderator, the percentage of U-235 in the fuel must be higher than the 0.7 percent found in natural uranium. The set of industrial processes that are used to increase the percentage of U-235 in a given quantity of uranium go under the general rubric of “uranium enrichment” – with the term “enrichment” referring to the increase in the percentage of the fissile isotope U-235. Light water reactors typically use 3 to 5 percent enriched uranium – that is, the proportion of U-235 in the fuel is 3 to 5 percent, with almost all the rest being U- 238. Material with this level of U-235 is called “low enriched uranium” or LEU. Nuclear bombs cannot be made from natural or low enriched uranium. The proportion of U-235, which is the only one of the three isotopes that can sustain a chain reaction in uranium, is just too small to enable a growing “super-critical” chain reaction to be sustained. Uranium must have a minimum of 20 percent U- 235 in it in order to be useful in making a nuclear bomb. However, a bomb made with uranium at this minimum level of enrichment would be too huge to deliver, requiring huge amounts of uranium and even larger amounts of conventional explosives in order to compress it into a supercritical mass. In practice, uranium containing at least 90 percent U-235 has been used to make nuclear weapons. Material with this level of enrichment is called highly enriched uranium or HEU. The bomb that destroyed Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, was made with approximately 60 kilograms of HEU. Highly enriched uranium is also used in research reactors and naval reactors, such as those that power aircraft carriers and submarines. The HEU fuel meant for research reactors is considered particularly vulnerable to diversion for use in nuclear weapons. 1 Thorium-232, which is also naturally occurring, can be used to make bombs by first converting it into U-233 in a nuclear reactor. However, uranium fuel for the reactor, or fuel derived from uranium (such as plutonium) is needed for this conversion if U-233 is to be produced in quantity from thorium-232. 2 A fissile material is one that can be split (or fissioned) by low energy neutrons and is also capable of sustaining a chain reaction. Only fissile materials may be used as fuel for nuclear reactors or nuclear weapons. Examples of other fissile materials, besides uranium-235, are uranium-233 and plutonium-239. 3 “Heavy water” is water that contains deuterium in place of the ordinary hydrogen in regular water (also called light water). Deuterium has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus as opposed to hydrogen, which has only a single proton. 5 The same process and facilities can be used to enrich uranium to fuel commercial light water reactors – that is to make LEU – as well as to make HEU for nuclear bombs. Therefore all uranium enrichment technologies are potential sources of nuclear weapons proliferation. In addition, some approaches to uranium enrichment are more difficult to detect than others, adding to concerns over possible clandestine programs. 2. Uranium Enrichment and Depleted Uranium – Basics: Science Since all isotopes of uranium have virtually the same chemical properties4, increasing the proportion of uranium in a sample depends on the difference in atomic weights of the isotopes (represented by the numbers 234, 235, and 238 attached to them). U-238 is a little over 1 percent heavier than U-235. If uranium can be put into a gaseous form, then the molecules containing the lighter U-235 will have a greater speed on average (at a given temperature) than the heavier ones containing U-238. During the typical enrichment processes, a stream of natural uranium which has been converted into a gas containing both U-235 and U-238 is split up into two streams by making use of the slight difference in mass of the two isotopes. One of the streams is richer in U-235 (the “enriched” uranium stream) while the other is poorer in U-235 (the “depleted” uranium stream – the term depleted refers to a lower percentage of U-235 relative to natural uranium). The capacity of a uranium enrichment facility to increase the percentage of U-235 is given by a unit known as the kilogram Separative Work Unit (SWU). Production level facilities typically have a capacity that range from a few hundred to several thousand metric tons SWU (MTSWU = 1,000 SWU). The Separative Work Unit is a complex unit that depends upon both the percentage of U-235 that is desired in the enriched stream and how much of the U-235 in the feed material ends up in the depleted uranium stream. The SWU unit can be thought of as the amount of effort that is required to achieve a given level of enrichment. The less U-235 in the feed material that is allowed to end up in the depleted uranium, the greater the number of SWUs required to achieve the desired level of enrichment. The number of Separative Work Units provided by an enrichment facility is directly related to the amount of energy that the facility consumes. The two most important enrichment technologies in use today (described in greater detail below) differ greatly in their energy needs. Modern gaseous diffusion plants typically require 2,400 to 2,500 kilowatt-hours of electricity per SWU while gas centrifuge plants require just 50 to 60 kilowatt- hours of electricity per SWU. In addition to the Separative Work Units provided by an enrichment facility, the other important parameter that must be considered is the mass of natural uranium that is needed in to order to yield a desired mass of enriched uranium. As with the number of SWUs, the amount of feed material required will also depend on the level of enrichment desired and upon the amount of U-235 that ends up in the depleted uranium. However, unlike the number of SWUs required during enrichment which increases with decreasing levels of U-235 in the depleted stream, the amount of natural uranium needed will decrease with decreasing levels of U-235 that end up in the depleted uranium. 4 There is one type of enrichment process that does make use of the very small differences between the isotopes’ chemical properties to separate U-235 from U-238. The so-called chemical and ion exchange enrichment process is described in more detail on page 13. 6 For example, in the enrichment of LEU for use in a light water reactor it is typical for the enriched stream to contain 3.6% U-235 (as compared to 0.7% in natural uranium) while the depleted stream contains 0.2% to 0.3% U-235. In order to produce one kilogram of this low enriched uranium it would require approximately 8 kilograms of natural uranium and 4.5 SWU if the depleted uranium stream was allowed to have 0.3% U-235. On the other hand, if the depleted stream had only 0.2% U-235, then it would require just 6.7 kilograms of natural uranium, but nearly 5.7 SWU of enrichment. Because the amount of natural uranium required and the number of SWUs required during enrichment change in opposite directions, if natural uranium is cheap and enrichment services are relatively more expensive, then the operators will typically choose to allow more U-235 to be “wasted” in the depleted uranium stream whereas if natural uranium is relatively more expensive and enrichment is less so, then they would choose the opposite. In order to provide the enriched uranium required to fuel a typical light water reactor with a capacity of 1,000 megawatts electric, it would take approximately 100,000 to 120,000 SWU a year of enrichment services. If this enrichment was provided by a gaseous diffusion plant (as is currently operated in the United States at Paducah, Kentucky) then the enrichment process would consume roughly 3 to 4 percent of the electricity generated by the reactor.5 On the other hand, if the uranium fuel was enriched in gas centrifuges (as are currently operated in many parts of the world) then the enrichment process would consume less than 0.1% of the electricity generated by the nuclear plant during the year. For comparison to these requirements for producing low enriched uranium for reactor fuel, in order to produce one kilogram of highly enriched uranium (i.e. uranium containing 90% U-235) it would require more than 193 SWU and nearly 219 kilograms of natural uranium if the depleted uranium contained 0.3% U-235. On the other hand, it would require nearly 228 SWU and more than 176 kilograms of natural uranium if the depleted stream contained 0.2% U-235. In other words, in order to enrich enough uranium to build a bomb like the one that was dropped by the United States on Hiroshima (approximately 60 kg of HEU), it would require between 10.6 and 13.1 metric tons of natural uranium and 11,600 to 13,600 SWU of enrichment. More sophisticated nuclear weapons designs, however, would require significantly less than half that amount. It is typical for modern uranium bombs to require just 20 to 25 kilograms of HEU. Adding to the proliferation concerns regarding the spread of enrichment technologies as part of the spread of nuclear power, it is important to note that if, instead of starting with natural uranium, low enriched uranium (3.6% U-235) was used as the feed material, then it would require just 70 to 78 SWU and 26 to 27 kilograms of feed material to produce one kilogram of highly enriched uranium. Just 1.6 tons of LEU, less than one tenth of the amount needed annually to fuel a single 1000 megawatt reactor, would be enough to yield the HEU required to assemble a Hiroshima style bomb if it was further enriched. Thus, stockpiles of low enriched uranium, if maintained in a form suitable for enrichment, can provide the base material to more easily and more rapidly manufacture highly enriched uranium for use in nuclear weapons. In this example, approximately two-thirds of the total enrichment services necessary to produce weapons usable HEU goes into enriching the uranium from natural uranium (0.7% U-235) to LEU (3.6% U-235) while only about one-third goes into enriching the LEU the rest of the way from 3.6% U-235 to HEU with 90% U-235. 5 This calculations assumes that the nuclear plant operates at full power for approximately 80 to 90 percent of the year. 7 3. Uranium Enrichment technologies Only four technologies have been used on a large scale for enriching uranium. Three of these, gaseous diffusion, gas centrifuges, and jet nozzle / aerodynamic separation, are based on converting uranium into uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas. The fourth technique, electromagnetic separation, is based on using ionized uranium gas produced from solid uranium tetrachloride (UCl4). Gaseous Diffusion The gaseous diffusion process has been used to enrich nearly all of the low and highly enriched uranium that has been produced in the United States. It was first developed in the 1940s as part of the Manhattan Project and was used to enrich a portion of the uranium used in the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. All five acknowledged nuclear weapons states within the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (NPT) regime have operated gaseous diffusion plants at one time or another, but currently only the United States and France continue to operate such facilities. The diffusion process requires pumping uranium in a gaseous form through a large number of porous barriers and, as noted above, is very energy intensive. In order to make the uranium into a gaseous form that can be used in the diffusion process, the natural uranium is first converted into uranium hexafluoride (UF6). The uranium hexafluoride molecules containing U-235 atoms, being slightly lighter, will diffuse through each barrier with a slightly higher rate than those containing U-238 atoms. A simple analogy to help visualize this process is to imagine blowing sand through a series of sieves. The smaller grains of sand will preferentially pass through each sieve, and thus after each stage they would represent a slightly higher percentage of the total than they did before passing through the stage. A schematic representation of one such stage from a gaseous diffusion plant is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a single stage in a gaseous diffusion plant. The darker colors represent the UF6 molecules that contain the heavier U-238 atoms, while the lighter colors represent gas molecules that contain the lighter U-235. After each stage the gas to the low pressure side of the barrier (i.e. the downstream side) has a slightly higher percentage of U-235 than the stage before. (Image courtesy of USEC Inc, http://www.usec.com/v2001_02/HTML/Aboutusec_enrichment.asp.) 8 The difference in mass, and therefore velocity, between the UF6 molecules containing either U-235 or U- 238 is very small, and thus thousands of such stages are needed in order to enrich commercial or military amounts of uranium. In a gaseous diffusion plant, the stages are arranged into “cascades” that allow each stage to build on the enrichment achieved by the ones before it and also to more efficiently make use of the depleted uranium stream. For a sense of scale, when it was first constructed in the early 1940s the gaseous diffusion plant at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, was the largest industrial building in the world. The facility at Oak Ridge is shown in Figure 2 while a picture of two of the diffusers used in the enrichment process is shown in Figure 3. Figure 2: Oak Ridge gaseous diffusion plant, built during World War II. At the time of its construction this was the largest industrial building in the world. In part it was decided to locate this plant in Tennessee so that its large electricity demand could be met by the abundant coal and hydroelectric plants built by the government run Tennessee Valley Authority. It is now closed and awaiting decommissioning. (photo taken from the website of the "Scientific History of the Atomic Bomb" online at http://www.hcc.mnscu.edu/programs/dept/chem/abomb/K25_Aerial.jpg) 9 Figure 3: A close up picture of the outside of two of the diffuser stages used at the Oak Ridge uranium enrichment plant. The diffusers contain the porous barriers used to separate the lighter U-235 atoms from the heavier U-238 atoms. Connected to the diffusers is equipment to compress the uranium hexafluoride gas and pipe it through the cascade as well as equipment to remove the large amount of heat generated during the enrichment process. Each diffuser and compressor are together referred to as a “stage.” (photo taken from the website of the "Scientific History of the Atomic Bomb" online at http://www.hcc.mnscu.edu/programs/dept/chem/abomb/Diffusers.jpg) The most challenging step in building a gas diffusion plant is to manufacture the permeable barriers required in the diffusers. The material for the barriers needs to be highly durable and able to maintain a consistent pore diameter for several years of operation. This is particularly challenging given the highly corrosive nature of the uranium hexafluoride gas used. Typical barriers are just 5 millimeters (less than 0.2 inches) thick and have openings that are only about 30 to 300 times the diameter of a single uranium atom.6 In addition to requiring a large amount of electricity during operation, the compressors in the gas diffusion facilities also generate a great deal of heat that requires dissipation. In U.S. plants this heat is dissipated through the use of ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) such as the coolant CFC-114 (often referred to simply as Freon of Freon-114). The manufacture, import, and use of CFCs were substantially restricted by the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, which the U.S. is implementing through the 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act. As a result of these 6 NRC 2003 10 commitments, the manufacture of Freon in the U.S. ended in 1995 and its emissions to the air in the United States from large users fell by nearly 60% between 1991 and 2002.7 The emissions from the Paducah gaseous diffusion plant, however, have remained virtually constant over this time, falling just over 7% between 1989 and 2002.8 In 2002, the Paducah enrichment plant emitted more than 197.3 metric tons of Freon into the air throug