GRE讲义

Issue 文章结构 _________? The discussion of this issue among individuals and in society as a whole has come into vogue during the last decade. People’s opinions are divergent on such a complex and controversial issue. The author declares that___, however, it oversimplifies this issue. The final judgment, in my point of view, should depend on a case-by-case analysis. First and foremost, at the risk of sounding too simplistic, my main proposition for___can be summarized in one saying that___. What is more, I approve the statement that ____ without reservations in respect that____. As a consequence, ____. Let’s bring our discussion here to a more present and practical context, it can be given a concrete example:_____. Meanwhile, according to a recent survey, it is estimated that____. Similarly, ______. From a personal perspective, another essential factor why I advocate ____involves the realm of ____. No one can deny that____. Moving on to wider themes, ____. History is replete with ample evidence to demonstrate this point. A notable case in point refers to____. However, we should concede that despite the merits of ____mentioned above, overextended ___will be indeed harmful. The harm it produces is , in my view, both palpable and profound. For the individual, it has a debasing impact on _____; for the society, it may promote the tendency toward _____. To successfully curb such unfavorable blights, it is imperative for us to take several efficacious steps into consideration. In the first place, we should appeal to the authority to work out relevant regulations to _____. In the second place, we should cultivate and enhance people’s awareness that _____. In the third place, _____should pour more investment into_____. From the analyses made above, I strongly commit to the notion that _____, not only because_______, but also because_______, but it depends on_________. Merely based on unfounded assumption and dubious (suspicious) evidence, the statement draws a conclusion that_____. To substantiate (support) the conclusion, the arguer points out evidence that_____. In addition, he indicates that_____. Furthermore, he cites the result of a recent survey in support of this recommendation. At first glance, the author’s argument appears to be somewhat convincing, but further reflection reveals that it omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed to substantiate the argument. In my point of view, this argument suffers from N logical flaws. 五 .如何写正文段 六 .如何写结尾段 七 .结尾段的具体写法 To sum up, this arguer fails to substantiate its claim that_____, because the evidences cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have to provide more information with regard to_____. Additionally, he would have to demonstrate that_____. Therefore, if the argument had included the given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable. 各个逻辑错误的攻击方法和语言 1.Survey/Study： (1)Procedure A. Selective sample B. Quantity of the sample Unless the surveyors sampled a sufficient number of and did so randomly across the entire spectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gauge_____ generally. The number of respondents/samples in itself does not ensure representativeness. For example, if the sample included only , then the results would no doubt suggest . Or if _____, (1200) would account for only a little percentage, which would renders the result of the survey meaningless. (2)Result of the survey A. Do the statistics make any meaningfullness? B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague? ①攻击“无相对比值”The argument tells us that “many” (a number of ) _____. However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of _____, so this evidence is far too vague to be meaningful. ②攻击“无绝对数值” The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of ____. C. Respondents The respondents must be statistically significant in number and representative of the overall_____. (3)Who conducted the survey? The surveyor should be nonaligned / cross-becher. (4)When was the survey conducted? A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recently he survey was actually conducted. When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generalization. All we know in this editorial is that the survey was recently published. The less recent the survey itself, the less reliable the results to indicate current interest levels. 2.Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition (1)Sufficient Evidence a. The argument assumes too hastily that ____will necessarily result in the behavior that the argument predicts. Perhaps,_____. Moreover,____. b. The fact that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B . (2)Necessary Condition The editor’s recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than A caused B . However, common sense informs me that this assumption is a poor one. A myriad of other factors, including ___or ____, might just as likely be the cause of B . To be specific,_____. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by ____ can____. 3.Cause and Effect Fallacies (1) Non sequitur The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that ____and the claim that____. This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling evidence to support the connection between these two events. Perhaps, for example, ____results from_____. (2) Post hoc, ergo proper hoc (after this, therefore because of this) Based on the fact that ____ occurred after _____, the editor infers that ____should be responsible for _____. However, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that earlier development caused the later one. I might have resulted from some other events instead: ____________----to just a few possibilities. Without ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between______ and _______ upon which editor’s the recommendation depends. (3) Concurrence The argument observes a correlation between A and B , then concludes that the former is the cause of the latter. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible explanations for A or B . For example, _____. Any of these factors might lead to B . Without ruling out all other factors it is unfair to conclude that A is responsible for B. (4) Confuse the cause and effect It is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for this possibility, the claim that _____ is completely unwarranted. 4.Changing Scope Fallacies (1)Different concepts A threshold problem involves the definition of A . The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined as B , then how C , is irrelevant to whether____. In short, without a clear definition of A , it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument. (2)What is true for a member is also true for the group The argument resets on the assumption that 个体案例 typify nationwide 整体情况. If this is not the case, then it is entirely possible that 在另一个地方，上述个案的结果不会 发 生 相 同 的 情 况 Thus, lacking more marketing information about ____ nationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memo’s recommendation. (3)Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide (characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group) statistics about _____ applies equally to 个体成员， Yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps ______; or perhaps ______ . Without ruling out such possibilities, the author cannot justifiably conclude that _____. (4)Average 5.Incomplete Thought (1)Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly In addition, the author fails to consider the possible negative impacts brought about by . (2)Profit The author’ conclusion that _____ is unwarranted. Profit is factor of not only revenue, but also costs. It’s entirely possible that the costs of_________ , or other costs associated with ________, will offset, even outweigh the revenue. Besides, a myriad of other possible occurrence, such as unfavorable economic conditions, might prevent ______ from being as profitable in the foreseeable futures as the argument predicts. 6.All things remain unchanged over time (1)Past conditions remain unchanged in the present and future The author claims that ______, because _____ . The author assumes without justification that the background conditions have remained the same at different time. The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended periods of time. There are likely all kinds of difference between A and B . For example, A_______; however, B______. Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the claim that ______ (2)Present Conditions will remain unchanged into the future 7.Vague evidence 8.Analogy and comparison (1)False analogy The arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between A and B. The analogy falsely depends on the assumption that ______ in both A and B are similar. However, it is entirely possible that A与B存在很大的不同. In short, without accounting for important possible differences between A and B, the arguer cannot reasonably prove the proposed method will help A_____ . (2)Incomplete or selective comparison (3)Comparison and Variation 9.False dilemma Even assuming A is not the reason for the B , the author falsely assumes that the B must be attributable to C. This “either-or ” argument is fallacious in that it ignores other possible causes of the B . For example, perhaps 其他可能原 因, or perhaps 其他可能原因 10.Unwarranted Assumption The author falsely depends on gratuitous assumption that ______. However, no evidence is stated in the argument to support this assumption. For example, it is most likely that ______. Therefore, the argument is unwarranted without ruling out such possibility. 11. Hasty generalization In addition, the arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if A , it does not follow that B . It is highly possible that other factors may have contributed to B. For instance, __________ . Besides, the arguer does not provide any solid information concerning B. Without ruling out these and other possible factors that give rise to B, the author cannot confidently conclude that ______.