Social media in Egyptian government

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259131976Social media in Egyptian government websites:Presence, usage, and effectivenessArticle in Government Information Quarterly · October 2013DOI: 10.1016/j.giq.2013.05.020CITATIONS36READS1694 authors, including:Hisham AbdelsalamCairo University45 PUBLICATIONS 265 CITATIONS SEE PROFILEAll content following this page was uploaded by Hisham Abdelsalam on 12 March 2016.The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.ThisarticleappearedinajournalpublishedbyElsevier.Theattachedcopyisfurnishedtotheauthorforinternalnon-commercialresearchandeducationuse,includingforinstructionattheauthorsinstitutionandsharingwithcolleagues.Otheruses,includingreproductionanddistribution,orsellingorlicensingcopies,orpostingtopersonal,institutionalorthirdpartywebsitesareprohibited.Inmostcasesauthorsarepermittedtoposttheirversionofthearticle(e.g.inWordorTexform)totheirpersonalwebsiteorinstitutionalrepository.AuthorsrequiringfurtherinformationregardingElsevier’sarchivingandmanuscriptpoliciesareencouragedtovisit:http://www.elsevier.com/authorsrightsAuthor'spersonalcopySocialmediainEgyptiangovernmentwebsites:Presence,usage,andeffectivenessHishamM.Abdelsalama,ChristopherG.Reddickb,⁎,SaraGamalc,AbdulrahamnAl-shaarcaDecisionSupportandFutureStudiesCenter,FacultyofComputersandInformation,CairoUniversity,Cairo,EgyptbDepartmentofPublicAdministration,UniversityofTexasatSanAntonio,USAcTheNationalManagementInstitute,Cairo,EgyptabstractarticleinfoAvailableonline15November2013Keywords:SocialmediaEgyptGovernmentFacebookPublicAdministrationRevolutiononJanuary25thNewPublicServiceThispaperexaminesthepresence,usage,andeffectivenessofEgyptiangovernmentsocialmediawebsites.TheadoptionofsocialmediatechnologyprovidesanillustrationoftheapplicationofNewPublicService(NPS)theorytopublicadministration.Thefirstphaseofthisstudyexaminedthepresenceofsocialmediaapplicationsonthesegovernmentwebsites.ThesecondphaseanalyzedtheuseofFacebookbygovernmentalentitiesinEgypt.TheuseofFacebook,Twitter,andYouTubewerethetopsocialmediaapplicationsinEgyptiangovernmentwebsites,whichisconsistentwithothergovernmentsurveysofsocialmediafoundindevelopedcountries.Intermsofeffectivenessofthesesocialmediawebsites,theywereusedmainlytopostinformation,withverylittletwo-wayinteractionbetweencitizensandgovernment.TheanalysisinthispapershowsthatsocialmediainEgyptisnotmuchinlinewiththeNPStheory.©2013ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.1.IntroductionThispaperexaminesthepresence,usage,andeffectivenessofsocialmediaadoptioninEgyptiangovernments.InEgypt,theantigovernmentprotestsappearedtoutilizesocialmediatoadvertiseandcoordinatetheprotestsbeforetheJanuary25,2011revolution(Niekerk,Pillay,&Maharaj,2011).TheresponsefromtheEgyptianauthoritieswastoshutdowntheInternetandmobileservices;thiswasultimatelyunsuccessfulassocialmediaservedasthecatalystforspreadingtheideaofprotest.TheEgyptianrevolutionprovidesagoodcasestudyontheuseofsocialmediaforpoliticaltransformationingovernment.AlthoughweshowthattherewasamarkedincreaseintheuseofsocialmediaaftertheJanuary25threvolution,wefoundthatthischangewastemporary.Therefore,socialmediatechnologyingovernmenthasthepotentialtobeapowerfultoolforempoweringprotesterstoinciteandmanagepoliticalchange.Inthisstudy,thisisaddressedthroughtheNewPublicService(NPS)theory,showingthatsocialmediacanbeusedtoempowercitizenstocreatemeaningfulchangeingovernment.ThroughNPSsocialmediacanbeusedasavehicletoenhancetrustingovernmentbymakingitmoreopenandtransparent.Thereisverylittleresearchonsocialmediaanddevelopingcountries(Shah&Lim,2011).Developingcountries,likeEgypt,haveuniquechallengeswiththeadoptionofelectronicgovernment,ore-government,sincetheylacktherequisiteresourcesneededforsuccessfuladoption,andaccesstotechnologyismoreofachallengeforthesenations(Abdelsalam,Reddick,ElKadi,&Gamal,2012;Heeks,2002).Furtherfordevelopedcountries,theadoptionofe-governmentisinhibitedmanytimesbybeingtooexpensivetoadoptandtheuncertaintyaboutthewillingnessofcitizenstousethistechnology(Reddick,Abdelsalam,&ElKadi,2011).Traditionally,e-governmenthasfavoredautomationingovernmenttherebycreatinggreaterefficienciesinpublicservicedelivery(Dixon,2010).Theideabehindsocialmediaisthatitistransformationalmovingfrome-government,withitsfocusonefficiencyandservicedelivery,tointegrationandparticipationofcitizensingovernment(i.e.,co-production).ThispaperusestheframeworkdevelopedbyDenhardtandDenhardt(2000),ofNewPublicService(NPS),asawayofexplainingthepresence,usage,andeffectivenessofsocialmediainEgypt.Thisstudyexamines,throughanempiricalanalysis,EgyptiangovernmentsocialmediawebsitesforboththepresenceanditsuseandtheeffectivenessofFacebook;themostcommonsocialmediaapplicationinthiscountry.Thispaperisdividedintofivesections.ThesecondsectiondiscussessomebackgroundinformationonsocialmediaadoptionEgypt.Thethirdsectionprovidesaliteraturereview.Thefourthsectiondiscussestheresearchmethodsforthisstudy.Thefifthsectiondiscussestheresearchresults.Thefinalsectionprovidesaconclusion,whichdiscussestheimplicationsofthisresearch.2.BackgroundinformationInFebruary2011,andafterahistoric18-daywaveofanti-governmentdemonstrations,EgyptianPresidentHosniMubarakGovernmentInformationQuarterly30(2013)406–416⁎Correspondingauthor.E-mailaddresses:h.abdelsalam@fci-cu.edu.eg(H.M.Abdelsalam),chris.reddick@utsa.edu(C.G.Reddick),sgamal@idecision.org(S.Gamal),ashaar@idecision.org(A.Al-shaar).0740-624X/$–seefrontmatter©2013ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2013.05.020ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirectGovernmentInformationQuarterlyjournalhomepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/govinfAuthor'spersonalcopyresignedending30yearsinpower.MillionsofEgyptianstookpartintheproteststhataimedatforcingMubarakoutofthepresidentialoffice.TheseunprecedentedprotestsonthestreetsofCairocaughttheworld'sattention.Despiteofstatepolicebrutalitythatledsuchnon-violentprotestsintoapublicrevolution,therealreasonsbelowthesurfacewerethegrowingdiscontentovereconomicdistresses,poverty,unemployment,andcorruption.OnekeyfacetoftheEgyptianrevolutionwastheextensiveuseofsocialmediatools,suchasFacebook,Twitter,andYouTube.SocialmediacanbeexaminedinthecontextofthetremendouspoliticalchangethatoccurredinEgypt.Forinstance,“WeusedFacebooktoscheduletheprotests,Twittertocoordinate,andYouTubetotelltheworld”Howard(2011)quotinganactivistinCairo.ThesignificantuseandimpactofsocialmediatriggeredtheEgyptiangovernmenttotryblockingkeysites(Twitter,Facebook,MySpace,andYouTube)onJanuary25thinthelateafternoon,localtimealongwithrestricting–andthencuttingof–mobilephoneservicesuntilthegovernmentblockedInternetservices.Socialmediawas,thus,consideredasthemainforcebehindthepeoplerevolutionagainsttheauthoritarianregimeinEgyptaccordingtosomeanalysts(Cohen,2011;Webster,2011).However,othersarguedthatsuchrevolutionwasseentohappenanywaywithamarginalroleofsocialmedia(Ingram,2011;Rich,2011;York,2011).Infact,bothcontrastingviewsoversimplifythecontextwithinwhichtheEgyptianrevolutiontookplaceaspeopleandsocialmediaarenotdetachedfromeachother(Lim,2012;Niekerketal.,2011;Zhuo,Wellman,&Yu,2011).AconstantlyincreasinguseoftheInternetcanbeeasilyspottedinEgyptiansocietyasEgyptiansconstituteabout22%oftotalusersintheArabregion(DubaiSchoolofGovernment,2011).Overtheperiod2001–2010,Egypt'sinternationalInternetbandwidthexpandedsteadilywithanaverageannualgrowthrateof105%andwithanaverageannualgrowthrateoftheInternetusageby64%duringthesameperiod(MCIT,2011).Giventhat78%ofEgypt'sInternetusersarelessthan34yearsold(MCIT,2011)andthatsocialmediausageamongyoungurbanitesinEgyptishighwitharound5millionFacebookusers(SpotOn,2010),therolesocialmediaplayedintherevolutioncanbeunderstood.Aftertherevolution,andastheEgyptiangovernmentsstartedrebuildingtrustbetweenpeopleandthestate,socialmediachannelswerethoughttobeaneffectivemeansofdoingsothatwouldleadtoenhancingcitizens'empowermentingovernment.Thispaperprovidesanempiricalanalysisofhowsocialmediacanbeusedforpublicservicedeliveryinacountrythatwitnessedtremendouspoliticalchange.3.LiteraturereviewInthissection,wewillfirstdiscusstheimpactofsocialmediaonpublicadministration.Thiswillbefollowedbyapresentationofoneofthepromisesofsocialmediaoftransforminggovernment.Thepurposeofthissectionistounderstandtherelationshipbetweenseveralpublicadministrationtheoriesandtransformationalchangefromsocialmedia.Itshouldbenotedattheoutsetthattheapplicationofsocialmediatogovernmenthasbeenmoreextensivelystudiedindevelopedcountries,withmuchlessresearchfocusedondevelopingcountries.3.1.PublicadministrationandsocialmediaResearchhasquestionedife-governmentwillimplementrealtransformationalchangeingovernment,orjustprovidesincrementalchange(Bekkers&Homburg,2007;Kraemer&King,2006).Alongthelinesoftransformationalchange,publicmanagementistheexaminationofhowtomakepublicsectororganizationsmoreefficient,effective,andaccountable.PublicmanagementisderivedfromtheNewPublicManagement(NPM)literature.ThisliteratureisarejectionoftheOldPublicAdministration(OPA)modelinwhichorganizationsareviewedasbeingreactivetosituations,bureaucratic,andredtapeboundwhichinhibitInformationTechnology(IT)reform(Bannister,2001;Denhardt&Denhardt,2000;Fountain,2001;Welch&Pandey,2006).E-governmentissaidtochangethewaythatbureaucracyinteractswithitscitizens(Bovens&Zouridis,2002).NPMarguesthatorganizationsneedtobedynamicandtakeintoaccountmanyoftheprinciplesofbusinessadministrationandapplythemtopublicsettings.ThefocusonNPMisonresultsandoutcomes,ratherthanjustproducingoutputsasseeninOPA(Denhardt&Denhardt,2000).Essentially,NPMisthecounterpartofbusinessadministration,butwiththefocusonpublicsectororganizations.However,existingITandpublicadministrationresearchchallengesthepresuppositionthatyoucanapplyprivatesectorprinciplestopublicadministration(Bretschneider,1990).Theissuesthatpublicorganizationsfaceareviewed,accordingtotheliterature,asbeingvastlydifferentthanbusinessadministration.TheimportanceofcitizensinpublicadministrationcanbeshownthroughthemorerecentNewPublicService(NPS)literature(Denhardt&Denhardt,2000).ThisliteratureisarejectionofNPM,inthatitarguesthatpublicsectororganizationsshouldfocusonmorethanjustusingprivatesectorprinciplesandapplyingthemtopublicsettings.WiththemovementtoNPMinthe1980s,citizensweretreatedas“customers”andhavetakenabackseattotheirimportantroleinpublicservicedelivery(Chadwick&May,2003).Theadoptionofe-governmentinthelate1990s,showedtheextenttowhichcitizenswereviewedasbeingimportant(Dunleavy,Margetts,Bastow,&Tinkler,2005).TheadoptionofsocialmediatechnologyprovidesanexcellentillustrationoftheapplicationofNPStopublicsectororganizations.However,itshouldbekeptinmind,thatNPScouldbecriticizedbythefactthatthemodelfocusesmoreonpublicservicedeliveryandoftenneglectsotherobjectivessuchascreatinggreatertransparencyandcollaborativepolicymaking.DenhardtandDenhardt(2000)haveexaminedthedifferencesbetweenOPA,NPM,andNPSandwehaveexaminedthesetheorieswithapplicationtoITandpublicadministrationresearch.ThecoredifferencesbetweenthethreetheoriesofOPA,NPM,andNPSareshowninTable1.Table1OldPublicAdministration,NewPublicManagement,andNewPublicServiceinPublicInformationManagementandE-GovernmentAdoption.RolesOldpublicadministrationNewpublicmanagementNewpublicserviceTechnologyandexamplePassivetoautomateorganizations(e.g.,transactionprocessingsystemsforpayroll)Tobemoreresponsivetocitizens(e.g.,customerrelationshipmanagementtechnology)E-governmentusedforgreateraccessforcitizenstoenhancedemocracy(e.g.,socialmediatechnology)CitizensCitizensviewedasbeinginferiortotheorganizationCitizensviewedasbeingcustomersCitizensareviewedasthemostimportantforenhancingdemocracyPublicmanagersIncreaseproductivityofworkersProvideincentivesthroughmarket-basedprinciplesTofacilitateandcollaboratewithcitizensPolicymakingToadministerchangefromthetop-downConsidersinputfromitscustomers,butgovernmentmakesthefinaldecisionCitizensinitiatepolicychangesfromthebottom-upwithbidirectionalflowofinformationPoliticsSeparationofpoliticsfromadministrationInterminglingofpoliticsandadministrationwithafocusonmoreefficientandeffectiveservicedelivery.Politiciansareresponsivetotheneedsofcitizens;theycollaborateandfacilitatechangethroughgovernanceProcessesOutput-orientedResults-orientedOutcome-oriented407H.M.Abdelsalametal./GovernmentInformationQuarterly30(2013)406–416Author'spersonalcopyInTable1examinestherolesoftechnology,citizens,politics,policy,andpublicmanagementhavinganinfluenceonthethreepublicadministrationtheories.Thistablecanbeusedtoviewtherolethattechnologyplaysintheorganization,alongwiththeotherdimensionsoforganizationalchangeandreform.Specifically,technologyinOPAisviewedasawaytoautomateproductionofpublicservicedelivery.AnexampleofanemblematictechnologyforOPAistheuseoftransactionprocessingsystemsforpayroll.ThefocusonOPAisonprovidingmoreoutputsforagiveninput;thereisnoconcerninthistheorywithachievingresults.WhileforNPMtheroleoftechnologyforgovernmentistobemoreresponsivetoitscustomers.Citizensas“customers”areviewedascriticalfore-governmentdevelopmentandcustomerrelationshipmanagementtechnologyisanemblematictechnologyinNPM(King,2007).Governmentscanusee-governmenttechnologytoprovidemoreservicestocitizensandsatisfytheirservicedeliveryneeds.WhatismostimportanttonoteinTable1,forNPMthereisnoroleforcitizensindemocraticgovernance.TheroleofcitizenscomesoutfullyinNPS,wherecitizensareviewedasthekeydriversofpolicychange.Governmentsdonotmerelyrespondtocustomersbyprovidingmoreservices.Socialmediasitesareexcellentexamplesofempoweringcitizenstousetechnologyfortransformationalchangeofgovernment.E-governanceprovides,throughsocialmedia,citizenswiththeabilitytocollaboratewithgovernmentinthepolicy-makingprocess.Scholarsarguethate-governancewillreplaceNPMasthenewreformagenda(Dunleavyetal.,2005).Therefore,thefundamentaldifferenceisthatNPMtheoryviewscitizensascustomers.WhileinNPStheorycitizensareviewedascollaboratorsandengagetheirgovernmentfromthegrassrootsinmeaningfulpolicychange.TheapplicationofNPStosocialmediaisthatcitizensengageinpeer-to-peerinteractionswithothercitizensandgovernmentinavirtualcommunity.Meijer,Grimmelikhuijsen,andBrandsma(2012)viewthispeer-to-peerinteractionwithgovernmentasaparadigmshiftinpublicservicedeliveryawayfromafocusoncitizensascustomersintheNPMmodel.3.2.TransformationalchangeandsocialmediaThissubsectionoftheliteraturereviewexaminesthee-governmentliteraturethatdiscussestherolethatsocialmediahasonthetransformationofgovernment.Scholarshavearguedthatsocialmediatechnologycanbeconsideredatransformingagentingeneratingcitizenengagementatthegrassrootslevelsingovernment(Chun&Reyes,2012).Inordertoachievetransformationfromsocialmedia,thereneedstobeextensivetechnologysupportforcitizenparticipation.Thisliteraturearguesthatsocialmediaisabletosupportmoreparticipatorygovernancewherecitizenscanbemoreengagedinpolicymaking.Socialmediamightbeconsidereda“disruptivetechnology”(Bower&Christensen,1995)andcould,asmentioned,representaparadigmshiftingovernment(Chun,Shulman,Sandoval,&Hovyd,2010;Hong&Nadler,2012).However,thesehighexpectationsofsocialmediainpublicadministrationarenotmatchedwithreality(Bryer&Zavattaro,2011).Intermsoftheimpactofsocialmediaongovernment,Linders(2012),forinstance,arguesthattherehasbeenamovementfrome-Table2Sophisticationindexitems.Sophisticationindex(SI)OfficialwebsiteForumsSurveySuggestions/complaintsRSSBlogsExternalChannelsFacebookpageYouTubeusageTwitteraccountWikipageLinkedInaccountSkypeaccountFig.1.SoftwaretoolusetoanalysistheFacebookpages.408H.M.Abdelsalametal./GovernmentInformationQuarterly30(2013)406–416Author'spersonalcopygovernment,inwhichthecitizenistreatedasacustomer,towhathelabeled“we-government,”wherethecitizenisapartner,similartothetenantsofNPS.Thisnewrelationshipisattributedtosocialmediaingovernment,whichenablescitizenco-production,thereby,expandingtheroleofcitizensfrombeingpassiveconsumersofpublicservices,toactiveparticipantsinjointproduction(Linders,2012).Afinalnotableimpactisthatsocialmediaallowsgovernmentstofindthe“wisdomofthecrowds”forthedevelopmentofgovernmentpolicy(Nam,2012).Socialmediaisespeciallyvaluabletogovernments,becausemonitoringpatternsofcitizens'behaviorprovidethemvaluableinformationonthemoodofthepublic,whichismoredifficulttocollectthroughtraditionalmeanssuchasphoneandmailsurveysduetoitscosts(Kavanaughetal.,2012).Socialmediahastheuniqueabilitytoenablepoliticiansandpolicymakerstomineuser-generateddataandcontentfromtheirFacebookpagesandTwitteraccountstolookforreactionstovariouspolicyproposals(Sobkowicz,Kaschesky,&Bouchard,2012).Theexistingliteratureshowsthatthemainbenefitsofsocialmediaareimprovedefficiency,greatercommunicationbetweengovernmentandcitizens,andanincreasedsourceoflegitimacyandcredibility(i.e.,trust)ingovernment(Chang&Kannan,2008;Vela,Martínez,&Reyes,2012).Socialmediaisparticularlyattractivetothosegroupsthathavelaggedintheuseofgovernmentwebsitessuchasminoritiesandthepoor(Kavanaughetal.,2012).Theeaseofuseandlow-entrythresholdforsocialmedia,hasenabledindividualsandminoritygroupstocreateanonlinepresencerelativelyeasily(Hsu&Park,2012).However,greatertransparencydoesnotnecessarilyleadtocreatingmorelegitimacyingovernmentanditsinstitutions(Curtin&Meijer,2006).AnotherbenefitofsocialmediaistheenhancementofdemocraticcitizenshipbytheInternetthroughinformationsharing,communitybuilding,andnewavenuesforcollectiveaction(Coleman&Blumler,2009).Socialmediaissaidtoaffectthewaysthatcitizensinteractwiththeirgovernmentbypromotingtransparencyandreducingcorruption(Bertot,Jaeger,&Grimes,2010,2012;Bertot,Jaeger,&Hansen,2012).ThefightagainstcorruptionisespeciallyimportantforadevelopingcountrysuchasEgypt.InanempiricalanalysisofsocialmediaadoptionandtransformationinlocalgovernmentsinEurope,Bonsón,Torres,Royo,andFlores(2012))foundevidenceforthistakingplacewithamovementfromstaticwebsitestomoresophisticatedsocialmediatechnologybeingused.However,itisonlyamodestmovement.InananalysisofFacebookandcitizens'interactionwithlocalgovernmentinPhoenix,ArizonaintheUSA,HandandChing(2011)foundthatitispossibletoengagecitizensthroughsocialmediasuchasFacebook,butFacebookdoesnotautomaticallycreatemeaningfulcitizenengagement.ResearchonKoreanpoliticiansandtheiruseofTwitterindicatesthattheyaremorelikelytocommunicatemorewithotherpoliticiansthancitizensthemselves(Hsu&Park,2012).Evenknowingthereareotherempiricalstudiesexaminingthepresenceofsocialmedia,mostoftheexistingresearchfocusesondevelopedcountries,whilethisstudyexaminesadevelopingcountrywhereverylittleresearchexists.4.ResearchmethodsInordertoexaminethepresence,usage,andeffectivenessofsocialmediaingovernmentsinEgypt,thisstudyexaminedallregisteredgovernmentaldomainsinEgypt(gov.eg).AnexhaustivelistofthesedomainswasprovidedbytheEgyptianUniversitiesNetwork(EUN),whichistheauthorityresponsibleforassigningsuchdomainsinEgypt.ThestudywasconductedduringthetwomonthsofOctoberandNovember2012andwentthroughtwophases.Thefirstphaseexaminedthepresenceofsocialmediaapplicationsonthesegovernmentwebsites,andthesecondphaseanalyzedtheuseofFacebookasthemostcommonsocialmediausedbygovernmentalentitiesinEgypt.Forthefirstphase,anon-exhaustiveSophisticationIndex(SI)similartothatofBonsónetal.(2012)wasdevelopedandconsistedof11itemsasoutlinedinTable2.TheSIhasfiveitemsthatexistonthewebsiteplussixotheritemsrepresentingtheexistenceofanofficialaccountorpageonFacebook,YouTube,Twitter,Wiki,LinkedIn,andSkype.Thefirstphaseinvolvedanalyzingallactivewebsiteslookingforthepresenceofthe11itemsgivingascoreof1iftheitemexists/usedandascoreof0otherwise.Withthesescores,theSIcanbecalculatedasapercentagerepresentingthenumberofitemsscoredas1to11itemsincludedintheSI.Forthesecondphase,asoftwaretoolwasdevelopedtocarryouttheFacebookanalysisinanautomatedmanner.Thesoftwaretoolusedisaweb-basedapplicationthataimstoretrievetherequiredrawdatafromdesi