古希腊文化应用课件

EuropeanCulture:anIntroduction欧洲文化入门2.AMapofEurope希腊及意大利的地理位置希腊位于欧洲东南部巴尔干半岛南端。陆地上北面与保加利亚、马其顿以及阿尔巴尼亚接壤，东部则与土耳其接壤，濒临爱琴海，西南临爱奥尼亚海及地中海。希腊被誉为是西方文明的发源地,拥有悠久的历史，并对三大洲的历史发展有过重大影响。意大利在亚平宁半岛上，西班牙和葡萄牙在伊比利亚半岛上希腊首都雅典希腊首都雅典(Athens)位于巴尔干半岛南端，三面环山，一面傍海，西南距爱琴海法利龙湾8公里。雅典市内多小山，基菲索斯河和伊利索斯河穿城而过。雅典是希腊最大的城市，面积90万公顷，人口307．3万（1993年）。雅典对欧洲及世界文化曾产生过重大影响，自古就有：“西方文明的摇篮”之美誉。雅典气候温和，属热带地中海型气候。冬季温暖潮湿,夏季少雨，阳光充足，年平均最低气温为0℃，最高气温为37℃。雅典是用智慧女神雅典娜的名字命名的历史古城。相传希腊古时候，智慧女神雅典娜与海神波赛顿为争夺雅典的保护神地位，相持不下。后来，主神宙斯决定谁能给人类一件有用的东西，城就归谁。海神赐给人类一匹象征战争的壮马，而智慧女神雅典娜献给人类一颗枝叶繁茂、果实累累、象征和平的油橄榄树。人们渴望和平，不要战争，结果这座城归了女神雅典娜。从此，她成了雅典的保护神，雅典因之得名。后来人们就把雅典视为“酷爱和平之城”。1.AMapofGreece古代希腊Democracypolis(民主制的城邦)比今天希腊共和国Republic要大的多，以希腊半岛为中心，包括东面的爱琴海和西面爱奥尼亚海，以及今天土耳其西南沿海，意大利南部及西西里岛东北海岸地区。1.GreekPeninsulas[pi↓ninsjuləz]2.AegeanSea[i:↓dʒi:ən]3.IonianSea[ai↓əunjən]4.Turkey5.SicilyIsland6.Troy[trɔi]7.Epics8.repulse[rɪ↓pʌls]9.Persian[↓pə:ʃən]10.Sparta[↓spɑ:tə]11.Alexander[↓ælɪg↓zændə]12.Macedon[↓mæsidɔn]13.Mediterranean[↓meditə↓reinjən]1.希腊半岛2.爱琴海3.爱奥尼亚海4.土耳其5.西西里岛6.n.特洛伊，（史）特洛伊（小亚细亚西北部古城）7.n.史诗8.vt.击退；驳斥；n.击败9.n.波斯人10.n.斯巴达（古希腊军事重镇11.n.亚历山大（男子名，涵义：人类的保护者12.n.马其顿王国（古代奴隶制国家13.n（似）地中海的）Introduction1.UsesoftheSubjectWhyshouldChinesestudentsofEnglishbotheraboutEuropeanculture?Well,EnglishcultureisapartofEuropeancultureandlanguagecannotbelearnedwithoutsomeknowledgeofthecultureBehindit.Further,Europeancultureitselfisapartofworldculture.Someknowledgeofitisnecessarytousascitizensoftheworld,particularlywhenourcountryisgoingaheadwithmodernizationandtakinganactivepartinworldaffairs2.TwoMajorElementsinEuropeanCultureEuropeancultureismadeupofmanyelements,whichhavegonethroughchangesoverthecenturies.Twooftheseelementsareconsideredtobemoreenduringandtheyare:theGreco-Romanelement,andtheJudeo-Christianelement.However,therehasbeenacomplexinterplaybetweenthetwo,whichaddstotherichnessoftheculture1.TheHistoricalContext1）InaremoteperiodofGreekhistory,probablyaround1200B.C.,awarwasfoughtbetweenGreeceandTroy,acityontheAsiaticsideoftheAegean,endinginthedestructionofTroy.ThisisthewarthatHomerreferstoinhisEpics.2）Greekculturereachedahighpointofdevelopmentinthe5thcenturyB.C.ThiswasmarkedbythesuccessfulrepulseofthePersianinvasionearlyinthecentury,theestablishmentofdemocracyandtheflourishingofscience,philosophy,literature,artandhistoricalwritinginAthens.ThecenturyclosedwithcivilwarbetweenAthensandSparta.3）Inthesecondhalfofthe4thcenturyB.C.,allGreecewasbroughtundertheruleofAlexander,KingofMacedon.HisarmieswentouttoconquerlargeareasofEurope,AsiaandAfrica,spreadingGreekculturewherevertheyfoundthemselves.4）In146B.C.theRomansconqueredGreece.BythattimeGreekculturehadfirmlyestablisheditselfinmuchofeasternandwest-ernEuropeandnorthernAfrica,withflourishingcentersofGreeklearning,suchasAlexandriawithitsfamouslibrary,aroundtheMediterranean今天，作为一个旅游景点，土耳其人在这里设置了一座十几米高的大木马。从马肚子下面的梯子进入马的腹部,通过开启的窗户可以俯瞰特洛伊全貌。特洛伊战争马其顿国王亚历山大2.SocialandPoliticalStructure1)Athenswasademocracy.Democracymeans"exerciseofpowerbythewholepeople",butby"thewholepeople"theGreeksmeantonlytheadultmalecitizens,andcitizenshipwasasetofrightswhichamaninheritedfromhisfather.Women,children,foreignersandslaveswereexcluded.Theyhadnorights.2)TheeconomyofAthensrestedonanimmenseamountofslavelabor.Slavesworkedonfarmsandinworkshops(作坊)andmines（矿井）ownedbytheirmasters.TherewasharshexploitationinGreeksociety.3)TheGreekslovedsports.Onceeveryfouryears,theyhadabigfestivalonOlympusMountwhichincludedcontestsofsports.ThusbegantheOlympicGames.Revived（恢复举办）in1896,theGameshavebecometheworld'sforemostamateursportscompetition古希腊奴隶古、今希腊运动会1.Iliad[‵iliəd]2.Odysse[‵ɔdisi]3.Alliance[ə‵laiəns]4.Agamemnon[æɡə‵memnən]5.Hector[‵hektə]6.Trojan[‵trəudʒən]7.Achilles[ə‵kili:z]8.Odysseus[ə‵disju:s]9.sack10.Penelope[pi‵neləpi,pə-]11.Lyrics['liriks].12.Sappho[‵sæfəu]13.Pindar[‵pində]14.Lesbos[‵lezbɔs]15.Odes[əʊdz]1.<伊利亚特>2.n.<奥德赛>（古希腊史3.（国家、政党）结盟，同盟4.n.<希神>阿伽门农，特洛伊战争中希腊军队的统帅5.赫克托尔6.a.特洛伊人的7.n.,<希神>阿喀琉斯8.n.奥德修斯9.vt.解雇；把…装进袋里；掠夺，洗劫10.n.<希神>珀涅罗珀；Odysseus的忠实妻子；11.n.抒情诗12.n.萨福(公元前6世纪前后的希腊女诗人)13.n.品达（希腊抒情诗人）14.[地名][希腊]莱斯沃斯岛15.n.颂诗3.Homer（荷马）AncientGreeksconsideredHomertobetheauthoroftheirepics.Heprobablylivedaround700B.C.Twosuchepics,theIliad《伊利亚特》andtheOdyssey《奥德赛》,havesurvived.TheyarenotabouteventsofHomer'sowntime,butaboutgreatmenandwarsofaremoterage,probablyintheperiod1200-1100B.C.TheIliaddealswiththeallianceofthestatesofthesouthernmainlandofGreece,ledbyAgamemnon（阿伽门农）intheirwaragainstthecityofTroy.TheheroesareHector（赫克托耳）ontheTrojansideandAchilles（阿喀琉斯）andOdysseus（奥德修斯）ontheGreek.Inthefinalbattle,HectorwaskilledbyAchillesandTroywassackedandburnedbytheGreeks.TheOdysseydealswiththereturnofOdysseusaftertheTrojanwartohishomeislandofIthaca.ItdescribesmanyadventuresheranintoonhislongseavoyageandhowfinallyhewasreunitedwithhisfaithfulwifePenelope（珀涅罗珀）.荷马4.LyricPoetry（抒情诗）Homer'sepicswerenottheonlyformofpoetrytheGreekshadwritten.Therewereotherforms,suchaslyrics.Ofthemanylyricpoetsofthetime,twoarestilladmiredbyreaderstoday:Sappho（萨福）andPindar（品达）.1)Sappho(about612—580B.C.),womanpoetofLesbos,isnotedforherlovepoemsofpassionateintensity（基情四射的爱情诗）,someofwhichareaddressedto（专为女性而作）women.ShewasconsideredthemostimportantlyricpoetofancientGreece.ManyGreekandLatinwritersknownearlyallherpoemsbyheart.Butinthe10thcenturytheChristianchurchburnedherworks.Onlyfragmentsremain.2)Pindar(about518—438B.C.)isbestknownforhisodes（颂歌）celebratingthevictoriesattheathleticgames,suchasthe14Olympianodes.Thesewerechantedbyachorus（合唱队）inaprocession.Theyaremarkedbyanelevated（振奋、高调）toneandstirring（激动人心的）soundeffects（以高调和颤音为特点）.Pindar,too,hadimitators,suchasthe17th-centuryEnglishpoetJohnDryden.萨福1.Aeschylus[‵eskələs,‵i:skə-]2.Prometheus[prə‵miθju:s]3.Persians[‵pə:ʃənz]4.Agamemnon[‵æɡə‵memnən]5.Verse[və:s]6.Sophocles7.Electra8.Antigone[æn‵tiɡəni]9.Oracle10.Corinth[‵kɔrinθ]11.ThebesoftheSphinx12.Jocasta[dʒəu‵kæstə]13.funeralrites1.悲剧作家埃斯库斯2.n.<希神>普罗米修斯3.n.波斯（现称伊朗）的4.n.<希神>阿伽门农，5.n.诗，韵文；诗节，6.索佛克里斯7.[女子名]伊莱克特拉8.n.<希神>安提歌尼（古希腊的）传神谕者，神使，宣示神谕的祭司10.[地名][希腊]科林斯11.狮身人面像的底比斯12.n.Thebes城的Laius之王妃13.葬礼1.Treason[ˈtri:zn]2.SigmundFreud's3.Euripides[juəˈripidi:z]4.Andromache[ænˈdrɔməki]5.Medea[mi:ˈdiə]6.Socrates[ˈsɔkrəti:z]7.Flocked[flɔkt]v.群集8.ElizabethBrowning伊丽莎白勃朗宁9.Aristophanes[ˌærɪˈstɔfəni:z]10.Wasps[wɑ:sps]11.Satirical[səˈtɪrɪkəl]12.Parody[ˈpærədi:]13.Acute[əˈkju:t]14.Swift人名]斯威夫特15.profane英[prəʊˈfeɪn].叛国（罪）；西格蒙德佛洛伊德欧里庇得斯悲剧诗人n<希神>安德洛玛刻美狄亚（希腊神话中科尔喀斯国王之女，以巫术著称阿里斯托芬剧作家黄蜂adj.含讽刺意味的.拙劣的模仿adj.锐的；敏锐的渎神的5.Drama(戏剧)Earlyintheirremotepast,theGreeksstartedtoperformplaysatreligiousfestivals.Outoftheseoriginsapowerfuldramadevelopedinthe5thcenturyB.C.Performancesweregiveninopen-airtheatres,withtheaudiencesittingonstonebenchesandlookingdownatthestagefromthreesides.Actorsworemasksa.Aeschylus(525—456B.C.)埃斯库罗斯atragedianHewrotesuchplaysasPrometheusBound,Persians,andAgamemnon.Intheseplaysthereareonlytwoactorsandachorus.Yettheymanagetostirandmovetheaudiencedeeplybyshowingheroesandheroinesin“complicatedhumansituations,outofwhichthereisnoescapebutdeath.Theplaysarewritteninverse.(诗歌形式)Aeschylusisnotedforhisvividcharacterportrayalandmajesticpoetry.（埃斯库勒斯以其鲜活的人物刻画和恢宏的诗歌语言著称）被缚的普罗米修斯神话传说在希腊神话中，人类是提坦神普罗米修斯（英文：Prometheus）创造的。（普罗米修斯含义是深谋远虑）他也充当了人类的教师，凡是对人有用的，能够使人类满意和幸福的，他都教给人类。同样的，人们也用爱和忠诚来感谢他，报答他。但最高的天神领袖宙斯（Zeus）却要求人类敬奉他，让人类必须拿出最好的东西献给他。普罗米修斯作为人类的辩护师触犯了宙斯。作为对他的惩罚，宙斯拒绝给人类为了完成他们的文明所需的最后一物：火。但机敏的伊阿珀托斯的儿子普罗米修斯，马上想出办法，补救这个缺陷。他摘取木本茴香的一枝，走到太阳车那里，当它从天上驰过，他将树枝伸到它的火焰里，直到树枝燃烧。他持着这火种降到地上，偷到了火种并带给了人类，即刻第一堆丛林的火柱就升到天上。宙斯，这发雷霆者，当他看见火焰从人类中间升起，且火光射得很广很远，这使他的灵魂感到刺痛。 于是，宙斯大怒，他吩咐火神给普罗米修斯最严厉的惩罚。但是火神（Haphaestus）赫淮斯托斯很敬佩普罗米修斯，悄悄地对他说：“只要你向宙斯承认错误，归还火种，我一定请求宙斯他饶恕你。”普罗米修斯摇摇头，坚定地说：“为人类造福，有什么错！我可以忍受各种痛苦，但决不会承认错误，更不会归还火种！”火神不敢违背宙斯的命令，与两个仆人暴力和强力，把普罗米修斯带到高加索山（东西走向，在黑海与里海之间，是亚洲和欧洲的地理分界线，海拔5,633米，是欧洲第一高峰。），用一条永远也挣不断的铁链把他缚在一个陡峭的悬崖上，让他永远不能入睡，疲惫的双膝也不能弯曲，在他起伏的胸脯上还钉着一颗金刚石的钉子。他忍受着饥饿、风吹和日晒。此外，宙斯还派一只可恶的鹫鹰每天去啄食普罗米修斯的肝脏，白天肝脏被吃完了，但在夜晚肝脏会重新长出来，这样，普罗米修斯所承受的痛苦便没有尽头了。尽管如此，他还是没有屈服。就这样，日复一日，年复一年。直至一位著名的大力士赫拉克勒斯（Heraclus）用箭射死神鹰，用石头砸碎铁链，将他解救出来为止，他一直忍受着这难以描述的痛苦和折磨。现在我们常把普罗米修斯比喻为:成全他人而宁愿牺牲自己的人。《被缚的普罗米修斯》被列为古希腊悲剧作家埃斯库罗斯的作品，剧中塑造了普罗米修斯这一位爱护人类、不屈服于暴力的光辉形象。被缚的普罗米修斯简介普罗米修斯和他的母亲忒弥斯设计帮助宙斯，使宙斯得以为王。宙斯登上王位后，漠视人间的苦难。普罗米修斯非常同情人类，他向人类传授各种生存的知识和技能，并盗来火种送给人类,激怒了众神之主宙斯。宙斯命令威力神和火神将普罗米修斯钉在高加索的悬崖上，暴露在雨雪风霜和烈日炙烤之中，以警告他以后不要再对人类滥施同情。人物形象普罗米修斯那满含悲怆的呼吁，那在高加索悬崖上忍受风霜欺凌、骄阳炙烤的身躯，与人类后世的另一救世主耶稣基督十分相像，他们的受难，是为了给人类带来光明与幸福。他们对救赎的信仰坚定不移，因而他们的肉体尽管受着煎熬，却享有精神上的优势b.Sophocles(496—406B.C.)索福克勒斯atragedianAuthorofplayslikeOedipustheKing《俄狄浦斯王》,Electra《埃勒克特拉》,andAntigone《安提戈涅》.Contributedgreatlytotragicart.Headdedathirdactoranddecreasedthesizeofthechorus.OedipustheKinghasaperfectplot.Itisthestoryofamanwhounknowinglycommittedterriblesin.AnoraclesaidthatthechildOedipuswouldgrowuptokillhisfatherandmarryhismother.Sotheparentsaskedashepherdtoleavehimonahillside,buthewasrescuedandbroughtupasthesonofthekingofCorinth（科林斯）,Hearingtheoracle,OedipusranawayfromCorinth.Whiletravelling,hemetandkilledLaius（拉伊俄斯）,kingofThebes（底比斯国王）,withoutrecognizingthatthemanwasreallyhisfather.Afterridding（战胜）ThebesoftheSphinx（怪物斯芬克斯）,hemarriedthequeenofthecountry,Jocasta（伊俄卡斯忒）,knowingnotthatshewashisownmother.Thus,unwittingly（不知情地）,hefulfilledtheoracle.Later,realizingthetruthofhisbirth,hestabbedouthiseyes,whileJocastahangedherself.Antigoneisaboutwhathappenedtoagirlbythatname,whowasthedaughterofOedipusandJocasta.Shehaddefiedtheking‘sorderbyperformingfuneralrites（举行葬礼）overherbrother,executedbythestatefortreason（叛国罪）,andwascondemnedtodeathonthataccount.Itisthusaplaywithanimportanttheme—aboutthedifficultchoiceonehastomakebetweenpublicdutyandprivatefeeling.SophocleshashadastrongimpactonEuropeanliterature.Someofhisplotsweretakenoverandadoptedbylaterwriters.TheAustrianpsychiatristSigmundFreud'sterm"theOedipuscomplex"wasalsoderivedfromSophocles'splay.俄狄浦斯情结c.Euripides(484—406B.C.)欧里庇得斯atragedianEuripideswrotemainlyaboutwomeninsuchplaysasAndromache《安德洛玛克》,Medea《美狄亚》,andTrojanWomen《特洛伊妇女》.HewasmoreofarealistthanAeschylusandSophocles,concernedwithconflicts.Hischaractersarelessheroic,morelikeordinarypeople.Hemaybecalledthefirstwriterof“problemplays”.HewasafriendofSocrates（苏格拉底）andtheintellectuals,butthepeoplewhoflockedtotheperformancesoftenfoundhimdisturbing.Aristotlesaidofhim,"Ifabadmanagerinallotherpoints,Euripidesisatleastthemosttragicofthepoets".Inthe19thcentury,theEnglishpoetessElizabethBrowningcalledhim"Euripidesthehuman".d.Comedy（喜剧）Comedyalsoflourishedinthe5thcenturyB.C.ItsbestwriterwasAristophanes(阿里斯托芬)acomedian(about450-380B.C.),whohasleftelevenplays,including:Frogs,Clouds,Wasps《黄蜂》,andBirds.Theseplaysarelooseinplotandsatiricalintone,fullofcleverparodyandacutecriticism.Theytreatofcontemporaryeventsandcontaindirectattacksonwell-knownpeopleoftheday,suchasSocratesinCloudsandEuripidesinFrogs.CoarselanguageisastrikingfeatureofAristophanes.Swiftsaysofhim:AsforcomicAristophanes,Thedogtoowittyandtooprofaneis.Herodotus[hiˈrɔdətəs]pathos[ˈpeɪˌθɔs]anecdotes[ˈænikdəuts]digressionsrenown[riˈnaun]Thucydides[θu:ˈsɪdɪˌdi:z]SpartaSyracuse[ˈsaiərəkju:z]Macaulay[məˈkɔ:li]eminent[ˈeminənt]n.（希腊的历史学家）希罗多德.N.悲怆，哀婉n.掌故，趣闻，轶事离题;偏离主题n.名望，声誉；威名；声威n.修西得底斯n.斯巴达（古希腊军事重镇）\锡拉库扎（意大利西西里岛东部一港市）人名]麦考利adj.（指人）知名的，杰出的6.HistoryHistoricalwritingstartedearlyinGreece,a.a.Herodotus(484—430B.C.)希罗多德ahistorianHeisoftencalled“FatherofHistory”,wroteaboutthewarsbetweenGreeksandPersians.Hehadakeeneyefordramaandpathos（哀婉动人的）.Hishistory,fullofanecdotesanddigressionsandlivelydialogue,iswonderfullyreadable.Hekeptalivemanytraditionalstories,whichwerenotalwaysaccurate.Hisobjectinwritingwas"thatthegreatandwonderfuldeedsdonebyGreeksandPeriansshouldnotlackrenown."b.Thucydides(about460-404B.C.)修昔底德ahistorianYoungerthanHerodotus（希罗多德）,heismoreaccurateasanhistorian.HetoldaboutthewarbetweenAthensandSpartaandbetweenAthensandSyracuse（锡拉库萨）,aGreekstate（城邦）ontheislandofSicily（西西里岛）.Hetracedeventstotheircausesandbroughtouttheireffects.Hewasneverdull,butwrotewithimaginationandpower.Macaulay,himselfaneminenthistorian,calledThucydides"thegreatesthistorianthateverlived."Pythagoras[paiˈθæɡərəs]Magnitude[mæɡnitju:d].巨大，Proportion[prəˈpɔ:ʃən]Heracleitue[ˌherəˈklaitəs]flux[flʌks]Mingling['miŋɡliŋ]Strife[straif]Democritus[diˈmɔkritəs]Exponents[eksˈpəunənts]fallacies[ˈfæləsi:z]Dissect[dɪˈsektdialectical[ˌdaɪəˈlektɪkl]Syracuse[ˈsaiərəkju:z]envisaged[inˈvizidʒd]Cynics[ˈsɪnɪks]毕达哥拉斯(580？-500？BC,古希腊哲学家， 数学 数学高考答题卡模板高考数学答题卡模板三年级数学混合运算测试卷数学作业设计案例新人教版八年级上数学教学计划 .比，比率；[数学]比例（赫拉克利特希腊哲学家）v.熔化；熔解；流v混合，混入(n.斗争；争吵；冲突；德谟克利特古希腊哲学家n.倡导者.n错误的见解v.解剖；仔细 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 adj.方言的，辩证的锡拉库扎（意大利西西里岛东部一港市）.想像，设想n.愤世嫉俗者Symposium[simˈpəuziəm]Doctrine[ˈdɔktrin]Stagirite[ˈstædʒirait]Macedonia[ˌmæsiˈdəunjə]Lyceumrhetoric[ˈretərik]Epochmaking[ˈepəkˌmeɪkɪŋ]cosmological[ˌkɒzməˈlɒdʒɪkl]Dante[ˈdænti]DemocritusEuclid[ˈju:klid]n.欧几里得Archimedes[ˌɑ:kiˈmi:di:z]Arithmetic[əˈriθmətik]acoustics[əˈku:stɪks]（古希腊）酒宴，宴会；古语]所教的东西，教育n.古马其顿斯塔利亚人n.n.马其顿王国，古希腊哲学家亚里士多德执教的）.修辞学；辩论法adj.划时代的，极重要的adj.宇宙哲学的，宇宙论的但丁（意大利诗人，1265-1321德谟克利特（约公元前460-370，古希腊哲学家n.阿基米德n.算术，计算；算法n.声学7.PhilosophyandScienceTheancientGreekswerecuriousaboutmanythings,includingwhatmadetheuniverse.Theyhadthespiritoffreeenquiryandwerequitereadytodropestablishedideas,tospeculate,tousetheirimaginationandtoformtheirownconclusions.Theywerealsonotafraidtospeaktheirminds.a.Pythagoras(about580—500B.C.)毕达哥拉斯wasaboldthinkerwhohadtheideathatallthingswerenumbers.Hewasthefounderofscientificmathematics.Tohimandhisschoolweowetheabstractconceptionsunderlyingmathematics—point,line,magnitude（量）,surface,body—andthefirsttheoryofproportion.b.Heraclitus(about540—480B.C.)赫拉克利特believedfiretobetheprimaryelementoftheuniverse,outofwhicheverythingelsehadarisen.Tohim,"allisflux,nothingisstationery."Healsosaid:Youcannotsteptwiceintothesameriver;(forfreshwatersareeverflowinginuponyou).Thesunisneweveryday.Heheldthetheoryoftheminglingofoppositesandbelievedthatitwasthestrifebetweentheoppositesthatproducedharmony.c.Democritus(about460—370B.C.)德谟克利特speculatedabouttheatomicstructureofmatter.Indeed,hewasoneoftheearliestexponentsoftheatomictheory.HewasoneoftheearliestphilosophicalmaterialistsandMarx’sfirstpublishedworkwasastudyofDemocritusa.Socrates（about469-399B.C.)苏格拉底ThegreatestnamesinEuropeanphilosophyareSocrates,PlatoandAristotle,whowereactiveinAthensinthe5thand4thcenturyB.C.Theywerecloselylinked.SocratestaughtPlato,whotaughtAristotle.ButPlatoandAristotlehaddifferentviewsonmanythings,eachwithhisownschoolofdisciples.WeknowSocrates(about469—399B.C.)chieflythroughwhatPlatorecordedofhiminthefamousDialogues.Sonofasculptor,perhapsasculptorhimselfinhisearlyyears,Socrateslikedtotalkwithpeopleinthemarketplaceandinthestreets,askingandansweringquestions.Hewasreadytodiscussanythinginheavenandearth,specializinginexposingfallacies.Whenwordslikejustice,religiousness,virtue,wisdom,etc.wereusedbyothers,hewouldaskthespeakertoexplainthemandthendissecttheanswerstoshowhowtheywerewrongorillogical.Thismethodofargument,byquestionsandanswers,hascometobeknownasthedialecticalmethod.Buthispersistentquestioningofpeoplemadehimmanyenemies.In399B.C,attheageofseventySocrateswasputontrialonachargeof"injuringthecity"bynotacknowledgingitsgodsandcorruptingtheyoung.ThistrialwasrecordedbyPlatointhedialogue"TheApologyofSocrates".b.Plato(about428—348B.C.)柏拉图Hewastwenty-eightwhenSocrateswasputtodeath.Hewentabroad,travelledfortwelveyears,returnedtoAthens,boughtahouseandgardeninapublicparkcalledtheAcademy,andtherefor41years,inthecompanyofpupilsandfriends,studiedandlecturedonphilosophy,mathematicsandastronomy.HisteachingwasinterruptedbyatriptoSyracuse,whereheservedastutortotheking'sson.Hetriedtoturntheyoungmanintoa"philosopher-king",thekindofidealrulerenvisagedinhisworkRepublic,butfailed.OftheDialogues《对话录》hewrote,27havesurvived,including:TheApology(Socrates'defenseofhimselfatthetrial),Symposium(dealingwithbeautyandlove),andtheRepublic(abouttheidealstateruledbyaphilosopherbutbarringpoets).Platobuiltupacomprehensivesystemofphilosophy.Itdealtwith,amongotherthings,theproblemofhow,inthecomplex,ever—changingworld,menweretoattainknowledge.Thereplyhegavewas:menhaveknowledgebecauseoftheexistenceofcertaingeneral"ideas",likebeauty,truth,goodness.Onlythese"ideas"arecompletelyreal,whilethephysicalworldisonlyrelativelyreal.Forthisreason,Plato'sphilosophyiscalledIdealism.Thisviewoftheworldhasdeeplyinfluencedmanyreligiousteachersandwriters.St.Paulexpressesthesamedoctrine,whenhesays:"Welooknotatthethingswhichareseenbutatthethingswhicharenotseen:forthethingswhichareseenaretemporal;butthethingswhicharenotseenareeternalc.Aristotle(384—322B.C.)亚里斯多德AristotlewasPlato'spupil.Bornofamedi-calfamilyinthesmalltownofStagire(hence"AristotletheStagirite")inMacedonia,hestudiedinPlato'sAcademyformanyyears.LaterhebecametutorofAlexandertheMacedonianKingwhoconqueredalargepartoftheworld.In335heretiredtoAthenstofoundhisownschoolattheLyceumandspenthislastyearsinteachingandresearch.InAristotlethegreathumanistandthegreatmanofsciencemeet.Onlogic,moralphilosophy,politics,metaphysics,psychology,physics,zoology,poetry,rhetoric,hewroteepoch-makingworks,whichdominatedEuropeanthoughtformorethanathou-sandyears.Hedidmuchtoform,throughhisvariousanddiverseinterpreters,thephilosophical,scientificandcosmologicaloutlookofanentireculture.Dantecalledhimilmaestrodicolorchesanno,"themasterofthosewhoknow*'."Ofhisnumerousworks,thefollowingareperhapsstillimportanttoscholarsandgeneralreadersalike:Ethics(anintroductiontomoralphilosophy),Politics,Poetics(atreatiseonliterarytheory),andRhetoric(dealingwiththeartofpersuadinganaudience).TheseworksweremostlybasedonthenotestakenbyAristotle'sstudents.AristotlewasPlato'spupil,yethedifferedfromhisteacherinmanywaysSocratesPlatoAristotle苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里斯多德e.ScienceWehaveseenthatmanyGreekphilosopherswereatthesametimescientists.ThusPlatowasamathematicianandAristotlecontributedtozoology.Aristotle,indeed,startedmethodicalresearch(开创了方法论的研究),patientlycollectingmaterialandlayingmassivefoundationsformodernscience.BeforePlatoandAristotle,therehadbeenscientist-philosophers（学贯哲学与科学领域）likeDemocritus,mentionedabove,whoputforwardthefirstatomictheory.Afterthem,Greeksciencemadefurtheradvances.Twomenmaybementionedforwhattheydidtopushscienceforward.Bothlivedinthe3rdcenturyB.C.Euclid（欧几里德）：Euclidisevennowwell-knownforhisElements（几何原本）,atextbookofgeometry（几何学教材）,perhapsthemostsuccessfultextbookeverwritten,becauseitwasinuseinEnglishschoolsuntiltheearlyyearsofthe20thcentury.Archimedes(287—212B.C.)（阿基米德）Archimedesdidimportantworknotonlyingeometry,butalsoinarithmetic（算数）,machanics（力学）,andhydrostatics（流体静力学）.Hediscoveredthatwhenabodyisimmersedinwateritslossofweightisequaltotheweightofthewaterdisplaced.HeinventedmachineswhichgreatlyhelpedhisnativecitySyracuse（锡拉库萨）againsttheRomans.Toillustratetheprincipleofthelever（杠杆）,heissaidtohavetoldtheking:“Givemeaplacetostand,andIwillmovetheworld.”Amodernhistorianofscience（一位现代科学史学家）,afterreviewingArchimedes'sworkinvariousfields,concludes:"Thisrepresentsasumofmathematicalachievementunsurpassedbyanyonemanintheworld'shistory".Greeksciencedidnotneglectapplication.Mathematics,thepurestofsciences,wasappliedinatleastfivefields:acoustics声学,optics光学,geography地理学,statics静力学andastronomy天文学.Greekscientistscollectedawealthofmaterialandenquiredintothepropermethodofdoingscientificwork（探索了有效进行科学研究的方法）.Asaresult,theywereabletodeducetheories(推理)andbuiltupsystems（诸多科学体系）,whichhadatremendousinfluenceonlaterscientists.Buttheyfailedtocreateconditionsforthecontinuousgrowthofscience.Itisherethatfundamentalchangesbeganinthe17thand18thcenturiesanditisthisthatsetoffmodernfromancientscience欧几里得阿基米德d.ContendingSchoolsofThought其他思想流派Inthe4thcenturyB.C.,fourschoolsofphilosophersoftenarguedwitheachother.Theywere:TheCynics犬儒主义gottheirnamebecauseDiogenes第欧根尼(希腊的哲学家,主张“简单寡求”的生活，决心像狗一样生活下去。）（元前412-323),oneoftheirleaders,decidedtolivelikeadogandtheword―“cynic”means―“dog”inGreek.Herejectedallconventions（习俗）——whetherofreligion,ofmanners（礼仪）,dress（服装）,housing（住房）,food,orofdecency（庄重正派/言行得体）.Headvocatedself-sufficiency(自给自足)andextremesimplicity（极其简朴的生活）inlife.Infact,helivedbybegging.Heproclaimed（宣布、声明、称作）hisbrotherhood,notonlywiththewholehumanrace,butalsowithanimals.Ontheotherhand,hehadnopatience（受不了）withtherichandpowerful.ThestoryistoldofhowAlexandertheGreatvisitedhimandaskedifhewantedanyfavor.“Onlytostandoutofmylight”,hereplied.ParthenonrectangularDoricmasculineIonicCorinthianAcrpolisclen