语言学第四章树形图句法Word版

传播优秀Word版文档，希望对您有帮助，可双击去除！传播优秀Word版文档，希望对您有帮助，可双击去除！传播优秀Word版文档，希望对您有帮助，可双击去除！Chapter4FromwordtoText(Syntax)Syntax(grammar)*Syntaxreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaydifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.4.1Syntacticrelations*Syntacticrelationscanbeanalyzedintothreekinds:*4.1.1positionalrelation*4.1.2relationsofsubstitutability*4.1.3relationsofco-occurrence4.1.1PositionalRelation*Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.*TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject*Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.*Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,Theboykickedtheball**Boytheballkickedthe**Theballkickedtheboy*Theteachersawthestudents*Thestudentssawtheteacher*PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelationsobservedbyF.deSaussure.*TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.*Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordorder,geneticandarealclassifications)toclassifylanguagesintheworld.*Thereare6possibletypesoflanguage:*SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.*EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.4.1.2RelationofSubstitutability*TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.*The ______smiles. manboygirl*Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.strongman*Thetallestboysmiles.prettygirlyesterday.*Hewenttherelastweek.thedaybefore.*ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelationsbyHjemslev.*Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.4.1.3RelationofCo-occurrence*Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.*Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.*Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.4.2Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents4.2.1GrammaticalConstruction*Anysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.*anapple*ateanapple*Maryateanapple4.2.2ImmediateConstituents*Constituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:*thegirl(NP)*atetheapple(VP)*Thegirlatetheapple(S)ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)Inthecaseoftheaboveexample,iftwoconstituentsB(thegirl)andC(atetheapple)arejointedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA(hereasentenceS),thenBandCaresaidtobetheimmediateconstituentsofA.TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledICanalysis.A(Sentence)BCTheboyatetheappleTwoways:treediagramandbracketingTreediagram:Bracketing*Bracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.*(((The)(girl)) ((ate) ((the)(apple))))*[S[NP[DetThe][Ngirl]][VP[Vate][NP[Detthe][Napple]]]]4.2.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructions*Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.*Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.*Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincluding*thebasicsentence,*theprepositionalphrase,*thepredicate(verb+object)construction,*theconnective(be+complement)construction.*Theboysmiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)*Hehidbehindthedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)*Hekickedtheball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)*Johnseemedangry.(Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.)4.2.4CoordinationandSubordination*Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:1)Coordination*CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.*Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.*CoordinationofNPs:*[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]*CoordinationofVPs:*[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]*CoordinationofPPs:*[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]*CoordinationofAPs:*[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]*CoordinationofSs:*[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].2)Subordination*Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.*Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.*two dogs         Head*(Mybrother)candrink(wine).Head*Swimminginthelake(isfun).Head*(Thepepperwas)hotbeyondendurance.Head3)Subordinateclauses*Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents.Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:*complementclauses*adjunct(oradverbial)clauses*relativeclauses*Johnbelieves[thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman].(complementclause)*Elizabethopenedherpresents[beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner].(adverbialclause)*Thewoman[thatIlove]ismovingtothesouth.(relativeclause)4.3.SyntacticFunction*Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.*Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.4.3.1Subject*Insomelanguages,subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase（主格）.*ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin,wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase,suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples.*paterfiliumamat(thefatherlovestheson)*patrumfiliusamat(thesonlovesthefather)*InEnglish,thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent,orthedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent.*Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences:*MaryslappedJohn.■AdogbitBill.*butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples:*Johnwasbittenbyadog.*Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery.*Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms“grammaticalsubject”(John)and“logicalsubject”(adog).*Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis“whatthesentenceisabout”(i.e.,topic).*Again,thisseemstoworkformanysentences,suchas*Billisaverycraftyfellow.*butfailsinothers,suchas*(Jackisprettyreliable,but)BillIdon’ttrust.*AsforBill,Iwouldn’ttakehispromisesveryseriously.*Allthreesentencesseemtobe“about”Bill;thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences.*Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject.Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave?A.Wordorder*Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:*Sallycollectsstamps.**CollectsSallystamps.B.Pro-forms*ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:*Helovesme.*Ilovehim.*Wethrewstonesatthem.*Theythrewstonesatus.C.Agreementwiththeverb*Inthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb:*Sheangershim.*Theyangerhim.  *Sheangersthem.D.Contentquestions*Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asin*JohnstoletheQueen’spicturefromtheBritishCouncil.*WhostoletheQueen’spicturefromtheBritishcouncil?*WhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechance?*WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil?*WheredidJohnstealtheQueen’spicturefrom?E.Tagquestion*Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.*JohnlovesMary,doesn’the?*MarylovesJohn,doesn’tshe?**JohnlovesMary,doesn’tshe?4.3.2Predicate*Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.*Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.*Theboyisrunning.(process)*Peterbroketheglass.(action)*Janemustbemad!(state)*Thewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate.4.3.3Object*Objectisalsoatermhardtodefine.Since,traditionally,subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction,objectmayrefertothe“receiver”or“goal”ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject.*Motherboughtadoll.*Mothergavemysister adoll.IO DO*Insomeinflectinglanguages,objectismarkedbycaselabels:theaccusativecase(受格)fordirectobject,andthedativecase（与格）forindirectobject.*InEnglish,“object”isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpro­nouns).*Mothergaveadolltomysister.*Johnkickedme.*Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation.*Johnbroketheglass.TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn.*PetersawJane.JanewasseenbyPeter.*Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing,theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice.*Hediedlastweek.*Thematchlastedthreehours.*HechangedtrainsatManchester.(*TrainswerechangedbyhimatManchester.)4.4.Category*Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:*Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountability*Categoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice4.4.1Number*Numberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.*InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.*Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.*Inotherlanguages,forexample,French,themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles.*lechevalroyal(theroyalhorse)*leschevauxroyaux(theroyalhorses)4.4.2Gender*Suchcontrastsas“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“animate:inanimate”,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.*Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender,theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases.*Forinstance,inLatin,ignis‘fire’ismasculine,whileflamma‘flame’isfeminine.*Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype.*he:she:it*prince:princess*author:authoress*InFrench,genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles.*beaucadeau(finegift)*bellemaison(finehouse)*Lecadeauestbeau.(Thegiftisgood.)*Lamaisonestbelle.(Thehouseisbeautiful.)*Sometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell,forexample,inFrench:*lepoele(thestove)*lapoele(thefryingpan)*lependule(thependulum)*lapendule(theclock)4.4.3Case*Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.*InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.*TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit.Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesinnouns,eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction.*InEnglish,caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun,anditisrealizedinthreechannels:*inflection*followingapreposition*wordorder*asmanifestedin*teacher:teacher’s*with:toaman*JohnkickedPeter:PeterkickedJohn4.4.4Agreement*Agreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).*Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric（照应）,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent,*Whoseisthispen?--Oh,it’stheoneIlost.*oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent,aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject:*Eachpersonmayhaveonecoin.*Agreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs:*Thismanruns.  Thebirdflies. *Thesemenrun.    Thesebirdsfly.SentenceClausePhraseWord*thethreetallestgirls(nominalphrase)*hasbeendoing(verbalphrase)*extremelydifficult(adjectivalphrase)*tothedoor(prepositionalphrase)*veryfast(adverbialphrase)*Thebestthingwouldbetoleaveearly.*It’sgreatforamantobefree.*Havingfinishedtheirtask,theycametohelpus.*Johnbeingaway,Billhadtodothework.*Filledwithshame,heleftthehouse.*Alloursavingsgone,westartedlookingforjobs.*It’snousecryingoverspiltmilk.*Doyoumindmyopeningthewindow?Sentence:(traditionalapproach)simpleSentencecomplexnon-simplecompoundSentence:(functionalapproach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicativewh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasicsentencetypes:(Bolinger)*Motherfell.(Nominal+intransitiveverbal)*Motherisyoung.(Nominal+copula+complement)*MotherlovesDad.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal).*MotherfedDadbreakfast.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal+nominal)*Thereistime.(There+existential+nominal)Basicsentencetypes:(Quirk)*SVC   Maryiskind.anurse.*SVA   Maryishere.inthehouse.*SV     Thechildislaughing.*SVO   Somebodycaughttheball.*SVOC  Wehaveprovedhimwrong.                                       afool.*SVOA   Iputtheplateonthetable.*SVOO  Shegivesmeexpensivepresents.4.6Recursiveness*Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination,conjoiningandembedding,hypotacticandparatactic.*Allthesearemeanstoextendsentences.*Howlongcanasentencebe?*Theoretically,thereisnolimittotheembeddingofonerelativeclauseintoanotherrelativeclause,solongasitdoesnotbecomeanobstacletosuccessfulcommunication.*Thesameholdstruefornominalclausesandadverbialclauses.*Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew…*John’ssister*John’ssister’shusband*John’ssister’shusband’suncle*John’ssister’shusband’suncle’sdaughter,etc.*thathouseinBeijing*thegardenofthathouseinBeijing*thetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijing*abirdonthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijing4.6.1Conjoining连接*Conjoining:coordination.*Conjunctions:and,but,andor.*Johnboughtahatandhiswifeboughtahandbag.*Givemelibertyorgivemedeath. 4.6.2Embedding嵌入*Embedding:subordination.*Mainclausesandsubordinateclauses.*Threebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:*Relativeclause:Isawthemanwhohadvisitedyoulastyear.*Complementclause:Idon’tknowwhetherProfessorLineedsthisbook.*Adverbialclause:Ifyoulistenedtome,youwouldn'tmakemistakes.4.7.Beyondthesentence(Textanddiscourse)*Thedevelopmentofmodernlinguisticsciencehashelpedpushthestudyofsyntaxbeyondthetraditionalsentenceboundary.*Linguistsarenowexploringthesyntacticrelationbetweensentencesinaparagraphorchapterorthewholetext,whichleadstotheemergenceoftextlinguisticsanddiscourseanalysis. 4.7.1SententialConnection*Hypotactic主次(subordinateclauses):*Youcanphonethedoctorifyoulike.However,Iverymuchdoubtwhetherheisin.*Welivenearthesea.Soweenjoyahealthyclimate.*Paratactic并联(coordinateclauses):*InGuangzhouitishotandhumidduringthesummer.InBeijingitishotanddry.*Hedictatedtheletter.Shewroteit.*Thedoorwasopen.Hewalkedin.4.7.2Cohesion衔接*Cohesionisaconcepttodowithdiscourseortextratherthanwithsyntax.Itreferstorelationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext,anddefinesitasatext.*Discoursal/textualCohesivenesscanberealizedbyemployingvariouscohesivedevices:*Conjunction连接*Ellipsis省略*lexicalcollocation词汇搭配*lexicalrepetition词汇重复*Reference指称*Substitution替代,etc.*“Didshegetthereatsix?”“No,(shegotthere)earlier(thansix).”(Ellipsis)*“ShallweinviteBill?”“No.1can’tstandtheman.”(Lexicalcollocation)*Hecouldn’topenthedoor.Itwaslockedtight.(Reference)*“Whydon’tyouuseyourownrecorder?”“Idon'thaveone.”(Substitution)*Iwantedtohelphim.Unfortunatelyitwastoolate.(Logicalconnection)