跨文化交际1

LectureOneandTwo--TohelpyouimproveyourEnglish,especiallyyourabilitytodiscussandexplainideas,andyourabilitytotalkaboutcultureinEnglish.--TohelpyoulearnmoreabouttheculturesofWesternnations.ThetextbookpaysspecialattentiontothecultureoftheUnitedStates,notonlybecauseitisthelargestEnglish-speakingcountry,butalsobecauseitscultureisdifferentfromChina’sinanumberofespeciallyinterestingways.--Tohelpyoubecomeabetterinterculturalcommunicator.Youwilllearnthispartlybystudyingmoreabouttheprocessofinterculturalcommunicationandalsoaboutthefactorsthataffectthatprocess.However,evenmoreimportant,youwilldevelopnewskillsandthinkinghabitsthatwillhelpyoumakesenseofforeignculturesandtheirpeople,especiallyofthingsWesternersdowhichmayseemstrange,puzzling,orevenbad.--Tofamiliarizeyouwithbasicconceptsofinterculturalcommunication.Thetextbookintroducesmanyofthebasicconceptsofinterculturalcommunication,assumingthatthemorestudentsunderstandaboutthevariousfactorsthataffectinterculturalcommunication,themoreawaretheywillbeoftherolethesefactorsplayininfluencinghowtheyinterpretthebehaviorofforeigners.--Readingthetextbookandotherrelatedmaterials(assignedbytheteacherorfound/searchedbyyouupontheteacher’srequest)--Regularattendanceoftheclasses--Ifpossible,makefriendswithoneortwoforeignerstogainsomepersonalexperiencesincross-culturalcommunication.DearFran,YesterdaywasmyfirstdayinChina,anditwasalittlebitstrange.Idecidedtogotoapark,andthereImetseveralChinesestudents.TheystartedtalkingwithmeinChinese,andIwashappytofinallyhaveachancetopracticespeakinginChinesewithrealChinesepeople,andmaybealsotomakesomeChinesefriends.AtfirsttheyaskedmesomeprettyeasyquestionsabouthowlongIhadbeeninChina,whatcountryIwasfrom,andsoforth.Butthenthequestionsstartedgettingmorecomplicatedandharderformetounderstandandanswer;also,sometimeswhenIwasstrugglingtoansweraquestionthestudentswouldlaugh.Thatkindofbotheredme,andIfeltliketheyweremakingfunofme.ThenoneofthestudentssaidsomethingthatIthoughtwasalittleweird.“Womenzuopengyouba.”Imean,Ididoriginallyhopetomakefriendswiththem,butIdidn’texpectsomeoneIhardlyknewtojustsay“Let’sbeFriends!”Thatseemedalittlestrangeandratherpushy.BYthatpoint,Iwasfeelingalittleuncomfortable,soIjustmadeanexcuseandleft.I’mnotquitesurewhattomakeofthisexperience.Ican’ttellifthestudentswereenjoyingthemselvesatmyexpense;I’malsonotsureiftheyaretryingtogetsomethingfromme.Finally,ifIseethemagainI’mnotsureifIshouldtalktothem,ormaybejusttrytoavoidthem.YouknowChinaalotbetterthanIdo,soanyadviceorsuggestionsyouhavewouldbeappreciated.Sincerely,PetePartoftheproblemwasthatPete’sChinesewasn’tverygood,soitwashardforhimtocommunicate.ItseemslikelythatPetedidn’tunderstandChinesecultureverywell,andthismadeitharderforhimtounderstandwhythestudentsactedastheydid.AnotherpartofthereasonliesinthewayPetehandledthisinterculturalcommunicationsituation.WhentheChinesestudentsdidorsaidthingsthatseemedstrangetohim,hetendedtojumptoconclusions.--E.B.Tylor(1967):Cultureisacomplexwholeofoursocialtraditionsandasprerequisiteforustobeamemberofthesociety.--Canbeasetoffundamentalideas,practices,andexperiencesofagroupofpeoplethataresymbolicallytransmittedgenerationtogenerationthroughalearningprocess.--Mayaswellrefertobeliefs,norms,andattitudesthatareusedtoguideourbehaviorsandtosolvehumanproblems.--Oranegotiatedsetofsharedsymbolicsystemsthatguideindividuals’behaviorsandinclinethemtofunctionasagroup.Asthesoftwareofhumanmind,culture,inadditiontoallowingourparticipationinaspecificgroup,servestwomajorfunctions:--Cultureprovidesacontextinwhichthreeaspectsofhumansocietyareembedded:linguistic,physical,andpsychological(Borden,1991).Languageallowsustocommunicatewithpeoplewhohavesimilarvalueandbeliefsystem.Physicalaspectssupplyanenvironmentofactivitiesandpermitwhatwedowithintheculture.Finally,thepsychologicalaspectisrelatedtoourmentalactivities,includingwhatwebelieveandwhatwehavelearned.--Culturefunctionstoprovidestructure,stabilityandsecuritythatareusedbythegroupandmemberstomaintainthemselvesasahealthysystem.Forexample,accordingtotraditionalChinesecustom,themarriageofyoungpeoplehadtobearrangedbytheirparents.Amatchmakerwasusedtointroducethetwoparties.Iftheparentsofthemalewereinterestedinseeingthelady,thematchmakerwouldplananarrangedmeetingforbothsidestomeetandobserveeachother.Ifthemalefamilywaspleasedwiththelady,thematchmakerwouldbesenttothefemalefamilytoformallyproposeamarriage.Apaymentmadebythegroom’sfamilytothefamilyofthebridewouldbemadewhenthecouplemarried.Dowry,includingmoney,jewelry,orothergifts,fromthebride’sfamilyusuallyaccompaniedthebride.ThestructuralprocessofthismatchingprocessfortheyoungpeopleintraditionalChinesesocietyclearlyreflectsthefunctionsofculture.ThispracticenotonlymaintainedthestabilityoftheChinesesocietyformanyhundredyearsbutalsoensuredthefinancialsecurityofthefemalefamilyafteradaughtermovedouttostaywiththeotherfamily.Fourbasiccharacteristics:holistic,learned,dynamic,andpervasive1.Cultureisholistic(整体的）.Itcanbebrokendownintoseveralsubsystems,includingakinshipsystem,aneducationalsystem,areligioussystem,anassociationsystem,apoliticalsystem,andsoon,butthevariousaspectsofculturearecloselyinterrelated.Inotherwords,anychangeinasubsystemwillaffectthewholesystem.Forexample,theAmericanCivilRightsMovementbroughtaboutchangesindifferentfacetsofAmericancultureandalteredAmericanattitudes,values,andbehaviors.2.Cultureislearned.Becausecultureisasharedsymbolicsystemwithinarelativelylargegroupofpeople,theonlywayforgroupmemberstointegrateinto,reinforce,andco-createthissharedsymbolicsystemisthroughalearningprocess.Webegintoconsciouslyandunconsciouslylearnourcultureinourearlylifethroughtheprocessofsocializationorenculturation.Interactionwithfamilymembersandfriendsisthemostcommonwayforustolearnaboutourculture.Othersourcesforlearningourcultureareschools,church,media,folktales,andart.Question:Whatisethnocentrism?Theprocessoflearningourownculturewillinevitablyfosteraphenomenoncalledethnocentrism.Ethnocentrismleadsgroupmemberstotiethemselvestightlytogetherandtobeproudoftheirownheritagesbysubjectivelyusingtheirculturalstandardsascriteriaforinterpretationsandjudgmentsininterculturalcommunication.3.Cultureisdynamic.Culturesareconstantlychangingovertime.Someculturesaremoreopenandacceptingofchange,otherstendtoresistit.Culturechangeintheprocessoftransmissionfromgenerationtogeneration,grouptogroup,andplacetoplace.Question:Whatwouldbringaboutthechangesofaculture?Fourmajormechanismsaccountforthechangeofcultures:technologicalinvention,disasters(naturalandhuman),culturalcontact,andenvironmentalfactors(e.g.Increasingpopulation).4.Cultureispervasive.Liketheubiquitous（无所不在的）airwebreathe,culturepenetratesintoeveryaspectofourlifeandinfluencesthewaywethink,thewaywetalk,andthewaywebehave.Interculturalcommunicationreferstothecommunicationbetweenpeoplefromtwodifferentcultures.Thestudyofinterculturalcommunicationaimstounderstandtheinfluenceofcultureonourattitudes,beliefs,andbehaviorsinordertoreducemisunderstandingsthatresultfromculturalvariations.AccordingtoDodd(1991),successfulinterculturalcommunicationisbasedonthreefactors:1.thepositivefeelingwepossessattheaffectivelevel,includingaffirmation,self-esteem,comfort,trust,andsafety;2.thebeliefswebringintotheinterculturalencounteratthecognitivelevel,includingexpectations,stereotypes,uncertainties,andmisunderstandingofrulesorprocedures;3.theactionorskillswepossessatthebehaviorallevel,includingverbalandnonverbalcommunicationskillsininterculturalsettings.Kenneth,anAmericanstudent,metVernon,astudentrecentlyarrivedfromMalaysia,andtheydecidedtohavedinnertogetherattheuniversitycafeteria.Inthecafeteria,Kennethorderedapizzaandsomeotherfoodfortheirdinner.Whenthefoodwassenttothem,KennethtorethepizzaintopiecesandhandedonepiecetoVernon,usinghislefthand.Vernontookthatpieceofpizzaandputitonhisplatewithouteatingit.Kennethwasquiteconfusedaboutwhathadgonewrong,soheaskedVernon,“Areyouallright?”“Yes,I’mfine,”Vernonreplied.Kennethkeptonasking,“Whydon’tyoueatthepizza?”Vernonsaidnothingbutbegantoeattheotherfood,ignoringthepizza.Kennethwasconfusedbutheceasedhisquestioning.Andthetwojustkeptoneatingwithoutmuchconversation.HowwouldyouhelpexplainVernon’sbehavior?SomelikelyinterpretationsMs.Kelsenmayfeelthatteachersshouldnotacceptgifts,especiallyvaluableones,fromstudents.(IntheWest,itisrareforindividualstudentstogiveteachersgifts,especiallyexpensiveones.)Ms.Kelsendoesnotthinkitisrighttoacceptagift,especiallyavaluableone,justfordoingherdutyasateacher.Ms.Kelsenisafraidthatotherpeoplewillfindoutthatsheacceptedthegift,andthattheywillthinkshetookabribe.Ms.Kelsenmayfeelthatsheonlydidherduty,soshehasdonenothingtodeservesuchaspecialgift.Ms.KelsenmayfeeluncomfortablebecausesheassumesFrankcannnotaffordtogiveexpensivegifts.Ms.KelsenmayfeelthatacceptingthegiftwouldputherunderobligationtoFrank.(MostWesternersfeelthatacceptingavaluablegiftentailsadegreeofreciprocity互惠，互给.)GiftgivingintheWest:WesternersgenerallyonlygivegiftsoncertainculturallydesignatedoccasionssuchasbirthdaysorcertainholidayssuchasChristmas.“Ingeneral,Westernersdonotusegiftstoincurorrepaysocialobligations”(Davis2001:113)Itisnotgenerallynecessarytoreciprocateforsmallpersonalfavorsbygivinggifts;usuallysaying“thankyou”issufficient.Insituationswheresomeonedoeswanttoshowgratitudebyofferingagift,Westernersareoftencomfortablewithbeingtakenouttoeat,orwithasmallgiftthathasmorepersonalsignificancethanmonetaryvalue.Perishablegiftslikefoodanddrinkcanalsogenerallybeacceptedrelativelyeasily.Valuablegiftsareanappropriatewaytoshowgratitudeonlyforatrulysignificantfavor,andonlyinsituationswhereitwillnotlooklikethegift-giveristryingtobuyfavor.Giftsandbribes:InmostWesterncultures,itisnotconsideredappropriatetoacceptaprivategift,especiallyavaluableone,asarewardforperformingawork-relatedduty.Suchagiftwouldoftenbeviewedasabribe.“Outsideof…wellestablishedoccasions[likeChristmasandbirthdays],circumspection(谨慎）isobservedsothatgiftgivingappearspersonallyanonymousoroffhand（即席的）.Thegift’ssignificanceiscarefullylimitedtoavoidapersonalmeaningthatmightbeconstruedasofferingabribe,seekingspecialfavors,orasrequiringreciprocity.”(StewardandBennett1991:95)Publicandprivatedistinction:InbothChinaandtheWest,expressinggratitudeforwork-relatedservicebygivingapersonalgiftwouldoftenbeconsideredinappropriate.Thereare,however,differencesbetweenEastandWestonmorespecificpointsofhowthisgeneralprincipleisapplied.Onthewhole,Western(individualist)culturesgenerallyfeelthereshouldbeaclearerdistinctionbetweenpublicandprivatelifethenEastern(collectivist)cultureswouldmake,andthiscausesWesternerstofellitismorewrongtodothingsthatwouldtransgress(违反）theboundariesbetweenthesetwopartsoflife.OneconsequenceofthisisthatWesternersarelesslikelytofeelitisnecessarytoberewarded(privately)fordoing(public)duties.GiftgivinginChina(forexample:luckymoneyinSpringFestival)“Lee”isaChinesestudentwhohasjustarrivedintheUStodograduatestudies.AfteralongandtiringflightfromChina,shegoesthroughcustomsattheairport.Themwithallofherluggage,shewaitsinlineforataxi.Afteralongannoyingwait,shefinallygetsataxi.However,thetaxidriverseemsfriendlyenough,andthetaxiiscomfortable,sosheisabletorelaxalittleduringthelongdrivetoherschool.Whenshegetstotheschool,thetaxi’smeterreads$32.5,soshestartsgettingthemoneyoutofherwallet.Butwhenthetaxistopsthedriverturnsaround,smilesatLee,andsaysthatsheshouldgivehim$50!Doyouknowwhythedriverasksfor$50ratherthan$32.5?ThetaxidriveristryingtocheatLee.ThereareextrachargeforluggagethatLeedoesn’tknowabout.ThereareextrachargesfortollsthatLeedoesn’tknowabout.Thereisanhonestmisunderstanding.Maybethereissomethingwrongwiththemeter,orfareshaverecentlygoneupandthemeterhasn’tbeenadjustedyet.Leemisunderstoodwhatthedriversaid,ordidn’thearwhathesaidclearly.Thedriverhasincludedatipforhimself—anunreasonablylargeone.Thedriverhasincludedagenerous—butnotentirelyunreasonable—tipforhimself,perhapsbecauseheknowsLeeisaforeignerandthinksshedoesn’tknowthatsheshouldtip,orbecauseinthepastotherforeignershavegivenhimverystingytips.Taxicharges:IntaxisintheUS,itisquitenormaltohaveasmallextrachargeoreachpieceofluggage.Usuallytherewillbealistofluggagechargespostedsomewhereinthetaxi.IntheUStherearealsosometimestollsforbridges,tunnels,andcertainroads,andthetaxidriverwillgenerallypaythesefirstandthenaddthemtothecostoftheride.TaxisintheUS:WhiletaxiscanoftenbefoundatUSairports,taxisarerelativelyrareinallbutthelargestAmericancities,andtogetataxipeopleoftenneedtocallataxicompany.ThisisbecausemostAmericansdrivetheirowncars.(Note:InlargecitieslikeNewYork,taxidriversareoftenimmigrantsfromothercountrieswhodonotspeakEnglishastheirfirstlanguage.)Tipping:Foremployeesinsomeserviceindustriesitiscommonandexpectedpracticetoofferatipontopofthebillaslongasserviceisnotbelowaverage.Followingaresomecommontippingguidelines:waiters:15-17%ofbillbeforetax,20%ata5-starrestaurantorforlargeparties(atafancyrestaurantchecktomakesureserviceisnotincludedinthebill)taxidrivers:15%oftotalbill,nolessthan25centshairdressers:15%shampooer:$1-$2pizzadeliveryperson:$1-2forshortdistance,$2-3forlongerdistanceairportskycap:$1-2perbagbellhop:$10forcarryingluggage,$5forshowingyoutoyourroomroomservice:15%ofthebillfurnituredelivery:$5-10minimum,upto$20forveryheavyorlargeitems.(Tippingisnotnormalinfast-foodrestaurantswherecustomersgettheirownfood.)Anindividualistcultureisoneinwhichpeopletendtoviewthemselvesasindividualsandtoemphasizetheneedsofindividuals.Ingeneral,Westernculturetendstobeindividualist.Acollectivistcultureisoneinwhichpeopletendtoviewthemselvesasmembersofgroups(families,workunits,tribes,nations),andusuallyconsidertheneedsofthegrouptobemoreimportantthantheneedsofindividuals.MostAsianculturestendtobecollectivist.Individualistcultures“I”consciousnessindependence,Competition.Collectivistcultures“We”consciousness,interdependence,groupharmony.(Stronginfluenceonsocialrelationships:theconceptofin-groupsandout-groups)CountryorRegionRankingCountryorRegionRankingU.S.A1Taiwan,China36Australia2Peru37GreatBritain3Pakistan38Canada4Colombia39Netherlands5Venezuela40Emphasisonself-reliance;notobligatedtohelpfamilymembersandfriends.Emphasisontheindividualrights.Individualsshouldtakecreditandresponsibilityforwhattheyhavepersonallydone.Obligatedtohelpothermembersoftheirgroups.ObligatedtosacrificeforthebenefitofthegroupAcceptmoreresponsibilityforwhatothermembersoftheirgroupsdo.Fromanearlyage,Americanchildrenareencouragedtobelievethattheythemselvesarethebestjudgesofwhattheywantandwhattheyshoulddo….Americansocietyimplicitlyacceptsthatchildrenshouldbeencouragedtomakedecisionsforthemselves,developtheirownopinions,solvetheirownproblems,havetheirownpossessions,andingeneral,learntoviewtheworldfromthepointofviewoftheself.WhileitisfairtosaythatChinesesocietyisgenerallycollectivist,thisgeneralizationistruerforinlandandruralareasthanforurbancoastalareaswhicharemoredevelopedindustriallyandtechnologically.Also,asChinacontinuestobecomemoreindustriallyandtechnologicallyadvancedsociety,itisprobablethatitwillalsobecomeatleastsomewhatmoreindividualistic.Tendtoviewindividualismasagoodthing.Tendtoview“individualist”(个人主义）negativelyAttitudesandbehaviorsindividualistscollectivistsSelfEachpersonisseparatefromothers;childrenlearntothinkintermsof“I”Eachpersonispartofagroup;childrenlearntothinkintermsof“we”IdentityIdentityisbasedintheindividualIdentityisbasedinthesocialnetworkCommunicationLowcontextSpeakyourmindandtellthetruthHighcontextMaintainharmonyandavoidconfrontationsSocialvaluesPersonalfreedomismoreimportantthanequalityEqualityismoreimportantthanpersonalfreedomDecision-makingFollowuniversalrules;thedecision-makingprocessisimportantFulfillobligationstoin-group;relationshipsareimportantGroupMembershipTheindividualbelongstomanygroupsbuthisattachmenttothemisrelativelyweakTheindividualbelongstofewgroupsbutfeelsstronglyattachedtothemConformityGrouphasrelativelylittleinfluenceonthebehaviorofgroupmembersGroupgreatlyinfluencesthebehaviorofmembersBehaviortowardingroupandoutgroupmembersRelativelylittledifferenceinbehaviortowardingroupandoutgroupmembersBigdifferencebetweeningroupandoutgroupbehaviorsRelationshipswithgroupmembersLessintimatewithingroupsandlesshostiletooutgroupsMoreintimatewithingroupsandmorehostiletooutgroupsCompetitionOccurswithingroupsaswellasbetweengroupsOccursbetweengroupsbutnotoftenwithingroupsCooperationCooperatewithpeoplewhoarenotmembersofone’sgroupplusgroupmembersCooperationwithmembersofingroupsbutnotwithmembersofoutgroupsAttitudesandbehaviorsindividualistscollectivistsStrangersValuemeetingnewpeople;meetthemeasilyFormalanddistantwithstrangersSelf-relianceItisapleasuretodoasmuchbyyourselfaspossiblePeopledependoneachotherbutshouldnotburdeningroupmembersunnecessarilyTypicalrelationshippatternShort-term,voluntarylessintensiverelationshipsLong-term,involuntarymoreintensiverelationshipsWesternculturestendtoplacemoreemphasisonself-reliancethan(moremutuallydependant)collectivistculturesdo.ThisisespeciallytrueofAmericanculture,inwhichself-relianceapproachestheimportanceofareligion.AsStewartandBennet(1991:136-137)noteAmericanstalkfondlyof“pullingthemselvesupbytheirbootstraps”tobecome“self-mademen)”(andwomen),andcommentthatAmericans“canenvisagefewfatesworsethandependence…”MostAmericanstakeconsiderableprideintheirabilitytodothingsforthemselvesratherthanrelyingonhelpfromothers.Infact,Americanswillsometimesprefertogothroughconsiderabledifficultyinordertodosomethingforthemselves(perhapsnotdoingitverywell),ratherthanhavingothersdoitforthem.TheothersideofthiscoinisthatAmericansexpectotherpeopletoalsobeself-reliant,andwhileAmericansareoftenquitewillingtohelpthosetheyconsideringenuineneed,thereislittlesympathyforthosewhoarenotperceivedastryingtohelpthemselves.Itisoftenfeltthathelpshouldbedeserved.此课件下载可自行编辑修改，供参考！感谢您的支持，我们努力做得更好！