外语教学法

外语教学法 第一章总论 The Nature of FLTM外语教学法的性质FLTM is a science which studies the processes and pattern of foreign language teaching ,aiming at revealing the nature and laws of foreign language teaching .that is to say ,it examines the practices and procedures in foreign language teaching; studies approaches ,methods and techniques; and also studies principles and belief that underlie them. In short ,FLTM is an inter-disciplinary science and it makes uses of theories of different subiects. 学科性质It includes a lot of disciplines such as linguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Therefore, we say that FLTM is an inter- disciplinary science and it makes use of many subjects. 语言研究的历史we are quite certain that ,according to the records available ,language study is at least more than 2500 years old. The goal of foreign language teaching—is to help the learner master the target language in the shortest possible time. What do we mean by mastering the target language? —We mean that the learner is able to have successful communications with others in the target language. Theories of Linguistics语言学理论 ?Traditional linguistics: 传统语言学the traditional linguistics we mean the traditional study of language in ancient Greece. it has a tradition of more than 2000years. In the fifth century B.C. the ancient Greeks began to make a serious study of language in the realm of philosophy. 古希腊的两个著名论战:one was between the naturalists and the conventionalists on the relations between form and meaning.The naturalists argued that the forms of words reflected directly the nature of objects while the conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words. The other was between the analogists and anomalists on the regularizes of language.— the analogists thought that language in general was regular and there were rules for people to follow while the anomalists thought that language was basically irregular and that was why there were so many exception and irregularities in the Greek language. Natural of traditional linguistics传统语言学的特征:Trditional linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to understand the classic words of ancient times and to teach students. They gave priority to the written form and used words as their starting point. They often took a prescriptive approach when they discussed rules of language. ?American structuralism 美国结构主义It started at the beginning of the 20th century in America. It became popular and influential in the 1930s and 40s through the world. The two forerunners of structuralism— Franz Boas and Edward Sapir. Franz Boas found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structures of those languages. Sapir found that although Indians’ languages had no wri tten forms, they were very systematic and were very efficient in communications within their communities. The father of American structuralism — Leonard Bloomfield. He accepted the theories and principles of behaviourism. He characterized language and language acquisition in terms of behaviourist terminology. He thought language was a habit of verbal behaviour which consisted of a series of stimuli and responses. He argued that to acquire a language was to form a habit of verbal behaviour and learning a second language was learning a new habit. He thought that speech was primary and writing was secondary. ?Transformational generative linguistics 转换生成论 The transformational generative linguistics was first put forward by Noam Chomsky in 1957. He wrote a book Syntactic Structures to spread his theory. His main points---Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device(LAD). This LAD is made up of general principles called universal grammar. Once the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. The child will use and test the principles again and again until his hypothesis agree with the actual grammar of the language. Chomsky has also made the distinction between the linguistic competence and linguistic performance. ?linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge that at native speaker of that language processes. Linguistic performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speakers. Chomsky believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker so as to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences. In order to gain the goal, Chomsky argues that we should use a deductive, hypothesis-testing approach should be used. ?Functional Linguistics 功能语言学 It develops from the London School of linguistics and the precursor of it was Bronislaw Malinowski. Malinowski’s conclusion is that ―the meaning of any single word is to a very hign degree dependent on its context.‖ And an utt erances has no meaning at all if it is out of the context of situation. It was Malinowski who created the phrase ―context of situation‖. J.R.Firth, a linguist, approached the context of situation from a different point of view. He accepted Malinowski’s view and he thought the meaning of linguistic items depends on the context of situation. Firth’s main approach to the notion of function in context was by means of concept system. He believes any linguistic item has got two sets of context: the context of the other possible choices in a system and the context where the system itself occurs. People refer to his theory as system-structure theory. Halliday developed Firth’s theory of systemic linguistics and made progress in the study of context. He thought lingu istic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The substance is the material of language which can be phonic or grahic. The form is the organization of the substance into meaningful events. The context is the relation of the form to non-linguistic features of the situations in which the language operates, and the relation of form to linguistic features otherthan those of the item under attention. He also said that language has formal meaning and contextual meaning.theformalmeaning of a linguistic item is its operation in the network of formal relations. The contextual meaning of an item refers to its relation to extra features, i.e. the context. Halliday thought a particular situation type consists of three dimensions: the ongoing social activity, the role relationship involved, and the sysbolic or rhetorical channel. He called these three dimensions ―field‖, ―tenor‖,and ―mode‖. He believes that there is a systematic relationship between the context and the text. Theories of Psychology心理学理论 The first laboratory of experimental psychology was set up at the University of Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. It announced the official birth of psychology. It was opened by Willhelm Wundt.第一个心理实验室建立 ?Gestalt psychology 格式 pdf格式笔记格式下载页码格式下载公文格式下载简报格式下载 塔心理学 It was founded by a group of German psychologists in the 1920s. Their research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the study of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perception experience. They found that people perceived objects and scenes a s organized wholes before they noticed their component pars. They used the word Gestalt, which means ― organized shape ‖ or ―whole form‖ in Engl ish, to name their school of psychology They argued that an object was not the sum of the individual parts. For example, an article is not the sum of individual words that make up the article. So people’s mind should be understood in terms of a whole. ?Psychoanalysis心里分析It is theory of the mind put forward by Sigmund Freud. Freud found that many of his patients’ mental pr oblems were caused by some disturbing events in their childhood. But the patients could not remember these disturbing events. The part of the mind which is out of the reach of consciousness was called by Freud the subconscious mind, Which was the most important concept in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind and he was the first to study unconscious mind. Freud believed the contents of the unconscious mind consist of buried memories and instinctive wishes and will influence the activities of the conscious mind. The basic approach of Freud was to analyse the irrational behaviour of the patients, including their dreams and slips of the tongue. ?Behaviourism 行为主义 In 1913, the American psychologist John B. Watson publishe d an article ― Psychology as the Behaviourist Views it ‖. The article was regarded as a formal introduction to behaviourism. Watson did a lot of experiments with nonhuman animals and animal’s behaviours without an y consideration of the animal’s mind. The g oal of psychology set out in his articles was to understand the environmental conditions that would cause an animal to behave in a particular way. According to Watson, there was no fundamental difference between human behaviour and that of other animals. W atson’s ideas were accepted by many psychologists. The dominant position of behaviourism was maintained until the mid-1960s. The leader of behaviourism was Skinner. He developed a new kind of apparatus for studying learning in animals and a new way of describing the learning process. Watson’s theory is called classic behaviourism while Skinner’s theory is called neo-behaviourism. The early behaviourists focused the attention on the topic of learning and they tried to characterize learning in terms of stimuli and response. Stimuli are observable events in the world that affect behaviour and responses are observable behavioural acts. Skinner argued that learning process could be divided into two kinds: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning a stimulus that did not elicit a response comes to elicit a response. By operant conditioning the occurrence of a response will be determined by the consequences of the response. For example, we look up a word in a dictionary because we can find out the meaning of the word in it. ?Cognitive psychology 认知理论 The term cognition means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organ ize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. The most important factor that has made cognitive psychology the dominant approach is the development of the computer technology. The brain works in a similar way to process information. The brain receives information through senses, processes it and sends it out as behaviour actions. The American linguist Noam Chomsky greatly influenced cognitive psychology. In his book Syntax Structure (1957) Chomsky argued that language should be viewed as a system of mental rules which are wired into the brain as a result of evolution. Cognitive psychologists maintain that all the relationship among stimuli, responses and consequences are learned and are integrated into the animal’s knowledge. There are two principal types of cognitive structures—schemas and concepts. Schemas refer to sets of rules that define particular categories of behaviour. Concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relation with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two process — assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the process by which new item are added to a concept or schema. Accommodation refers to the process by which the existing concept or schema is changed on the basis of new information. Theories of Second Language Acquisition二语获得论 ?The habit formation theory It comes from the behaviourist psychology and was very popular in the 1950s and 60s. According to behaviourists, learning a second language means the formation of a set of linguistics habits. Imitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit-formation. According to the habit-formation theory, the old habit—mother tongue of the learner will either facilitate or get in the way of the second language learning. Negative transfer means the learner transfers the ways of expression in the mother tongue to the target language. They will cause errors. ?The hypothesis of linguistic universals 语言共性说 It believed that there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all the natural languages in the world. The hypothesis of linguistic universals is born of the study of linguistic universals. Core grammar and peripheral grammar: Chomsky divides the grammar of a natural language into core grammar and peripheral grammar. According to him, human beings are born with a language acquisition device which consists of a set of general principles. The core grammar of a natural language agrees with the inborn set of general principles while the peripheral grammar can not be governed by the language acquisition device. The core grammar agrees with the inborn general principles and is much easier to learn. ?The acculturation theory 文化认同说 The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture. It involves social and psychological adaptations. The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition. Factors which determine the degree of acculturation success: The social and psychological distance play a decisive role in acculturation success. Negative psychological factors that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries. ?The discourse theory 话语交际说 It was put forward by Hatch in the late 1970s. It was developed from Halliday’s theory of first language acquisition. The the ory believes there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of second language acquisition —only through communication discourses. ?The monitor theory 监控理论It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the following five hypotheses: ①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have to ways of developing their competence —acquisition and learning. The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency. Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language. ②The monitor hypothesis Different functions— According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for the fluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages. Three conditions — In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language. ③The natural order hypothesis Same order — The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language. Speed —In Krashen’s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition. It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition. ④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition— According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input. They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input. ⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose — It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group. The three affective factors which determines the speed of success —motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Influence of the three factors — learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure. That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter. ?The cognitive hypothesis 认知假说①Cognitive psychologists regard learning as a cognitive process because they think it involves internal presentations which offer regulation and guidance for performance. ②Notions — In the cognitive theory, automaticity and restructuring are the most important notions because learners have to select appropriate vocabulary, grammatical rules and conventions governing language use. ③Modes —Cognitive psychologists think the process of language communication is a kind of information processing. When processing information, people use two ways which are called automatic and controlled modes. Teaching and practice will help the learner to acquire the automatic processing capacity. ④Different stages — The cognitive theory holds that language learning at the beginning stage involves more of the process of automaticity while at the advanced stage it involves more of the process of restructuring. A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching(外语教学的简要历史) ?The Reform Movement(1882-1906) Grammar-Translation Method — It was the first method used at the end of the 18th century. The principal aim was to help learners to acquire a reading knowledge of the target language. This method did not pay attention to the importance of speech. The primary of speech — In 1882, Victor published a pamphlet entitled Language Teaching Must Start A Fresh Which started the reform movement. The principles of the movement were the primacy of speech and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom. ?Modern language teaching and research (1906-1940) During this period, the teaching of English as a second /foreign language because a profession. There appeared a number of world-famous scholars and books. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral Method in his teaching. ?Structural language teaching (1940-1970) In this period, structural language teaching was used as the main method and its theoretical basis was American structuralism and behaviourism. During the Second World War, American structuralists created a new method, called Audiolingugual Method, In the 1950s, a new method called Transformational Generative Linguistics was born. It criticized the Audilingual Method. ?Communicative language teaching (1970- ) At the end of 1950s, Chomsky’s transformational generative linguistics started a revolution. And then the end of 1960s, cognitive psychology came into being. They caused the appearance of a new teaching method. ①Communicative language teaching This is probably the main trend dominating the language teaching profession today. ②New theories of second language acquisition Influenced by Chomsky’s hypothesis of language acquisition device(LAD) and the cognitive psychology, many new theories of sec ond language acquisition were introduced in the 1970s. ③New methods of language teaching Communicative language teaching is the main trend in this period. But there are some other methods which are also tried. ④New approach to language syllabus While some applied linguists were trying to find the best way to teach languages, some other applied linguists began to design the notional syllabus. ⑤Exploration of the human relations People have realized that relations between teachers and students, and relations among the students themselves are very important in language teaching. They try to find the better relations among them. 1-What are the function and result of the two controversies in ancient Greece? 古希腊两个著名论争的功能和结果? One controversy was between the naturalists and the conventionalists. The naturalists argued that the form of words reflected the nature of objects. The conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words. The other controversy was between the analogiata and the anomalists on the regularities of language. The analogists claimed language was regular and there were rules for people to follow. The anomalists maintained there were no rules . Their debate roused people’s interest in lan guage and led them to the detailed study of Greek. The direct result was the appearance of a book of Greek grammar. 2 What are the main features of traditional linguistics?传统语言学的主要特征Traditional Linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to read classic works. Traditional linguists believed that the written form of language was superior to spoken form. They tried to set up principles and standards for people to use language correctly. 3-What are the contributions made by Franz Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield to the development of American structuralism? 这些人对美国结构主义发展的贡献 Franz Boas and Edward Sapir were forerunners of American structuralism. Boas studied the American Indians’ languages and foun d that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structure of those languages. He had to describe those language as they were used. This started American structuralism. Leonard Bloomfield accepted the theories and principles of Franz Boas. He argued that linguists should describe instead of prescribing what people say and should take an inductive approach in analyzing data. In 1933, he published the book Language. It soon became the bible of American structuralism. 4-What is the influence of behaviourism over American structuralism? 行为主义对美国结构主义的影响 In 1933, the American psychologist John Watson published an article entitled Psychology as Behaviourist Views It . This was the formal introduction behaviourism. Watson believed we had no direct way to observe the animal’s mind. We could only observe the animal’s behaviour and the external environmental conditions. Behaviourists studied the relation between stimuli and responses. They divided learning process into two kinds. One kind is now called classic conditioning. The other is called operant conditioning. Behaviourism helped the development of structuralism. 5-- What is Chomsky’s explanation of the first language acquisition process? 乔姆斯基对母语获得的解释 Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is made up of a set of general principles called universal grammar. When the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. C hildren’s language acquisition process completes when the universal grammar is successfully transformed into the grammar of a particular language. 6-What is the difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance? 语言能力和语言应用的不同 Linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge of the language that a native speaker of that language possesses. Linguistic performance refers to the actural utterance produced by the native speakers. 7-How does transformational generative linguistics differ in research methods?在研究方法上转换生成语言学有什么不同? Transformational generative linguistics opposes the structuralist method of taking linguistic performance as the goal. It also attacks the inductive approach. It believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker and try to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences. 8--What is the main feature of functional linguistics?功能语言学的特征 Functional linguistics, founded by Malinowski and devel oped by Firth, believes ―the meaning of any single word is to a high degree dependent on its context‖ It introduced the phrase ―context of situation‖. The theory is based on the notion of function in context. Its p oint of view is that linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The theory also divides a particular situation type into three dimensions. 9--What is the basic theory of Gestalt psychology? 格式塔心理学的主要理论 Gestalt psychology appeared in the 1920s. Its research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the exploration of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perceptional experience. It claimed that people received objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component parts. The word Gestalt means ―organized shape‖ or ―whole form ‖ in English. 10--What is the basic theory of psychoanalysis? 心里分析的主要理论The basic theory of psychoanalysis is put forward by Freud. The theory divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind is only a very small part of the whole mind while the rest remains unconscious. Psychoanalysis aims to analyse the irrational behavour of patients. 11--What are the principles of behaviourism? 行为主义的原则The principles of behaviourism are as follow: Psychologists should study what could be observed publicly and objectively instead of considering animal’s mental events because these things could not be se en. Behaviourism believes that the study should be focused on learning and the relation between stimuli and responses. 12--What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? 经典性和操作性条件反射的区别Classical conditioning means the stimulus that does not elicit a response comes to elicit a response after it is paired several times with a stimulus that already elicited a response. Operant conditioning means the occurrence of a response will be determined by the consequence of the response. 13-- What are the three factors that have helped to set up the cognitive psychology? 认知心理学发展的三个前提条件The three factors are the development of computer technology, Jean Piaget’s research work on the reasoning abilities of children, and the work of the A merican linguist Chomsky. 14--How does the cognitive psychology explain the acquisition of knowledge? 认知心理学如何解释知识获得The term cognitive means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use kno wledge to guide their behaviour. As for the acquisition of knowledge, cognitive psychology believes that there are two principal types of cognitive structures which are called schemas and concepts. The schemas refer to sets of rules that define categories of behaviour and concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relations with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two processes — assimilation and accommodation. 15--How does the habit-formation theory explain the second language acquisition process?习惯养成论如何解释二语获得过程Habit-formation theory was put forward by a group of behaviorists. According to their theory, learning a second language means the formation of a new set of linguistic habits. Imitation and practice play n important role in the process of habit-formation. Imitation will help learners identify the association between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the association and help learners to form the new linguistic habit. 16--how does the hypothesis of linguistic universals explain the second language acquisition process? 语言共性说The hypothesis says there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all natural languages into core grammar and peripheral grammar. Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). The second language learners usually acquire the core grammar of the target language and then the peripheral grammar. The core grammar of the learner’s mother tongue will help the learners to learn the target language. 17--How does the acculturation theory explain the second language acquisition? 文化传递说Acculturation means individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge and behavior in order to do well in another culture. It believes that second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition. 18--How does the discourse theory explain the second language acquisition process? 话语情境说The discourse theory argues that there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of the second language acquisition –only through communication discourse can the learner acquire the second language. 19---What are the five hypothesis of the monitor theory? They are the acquisition –learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis. 20--How does the cognitive theory explain the second language acquisition process? The cognitive theory claims that second language learning should be regarded as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. The process of second language acquisition is a process in which the internal representations are being restructured constantly. The acquisition involves two process- automaticity and restructuring. Language learning at the beginning stage involves none of the process of restructuring. 21-What are the principles and consequences of the Reform Movement? The principles of the Reform Movement were the primacy of speech, the centrality of the connected text as the kernel of the language teaching process, and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom. The consequences were great. Many people took part in the reform and movement. A lot of book were published. An applied linguistic approach to language teaching began to take shape. 22--What’s the contribution made by Daniel Jones and Harold Palmer to the development of Daniel Jones teaching? Daniel Jones was the first one that helped to make a profession the teaching of English as a second /foreign language. And he did a lot of research on the profession of foreign language teaching. He wrote a number of books from his research. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral Method in his teaching and did his research on the English vocabulary. He published a lot of books on methods of language teaching and textbooks. 23 What are the reasons for the rise and fall of Audiolingual Method? Audiolingual Method comes from the theories and ideas of behaviourism and structurism. It was very popular in the 1950s. Towards the end of the 1950s, transformational generative linguistics started a war against it and finally brought it down from its dominant position. 24-What are the main trends of applied linguistic research in the present period? In the present period, applied linguists have began to study foreign language teaching from different perspectives. New ideas and new trends appear very quickly. The new trends include communicative language teaching, new approaches to language syllabus and exploration of human relations, in foreign language teaching. 第一章语法翻译法 1.教材the teaching material are arranged according to grammar system. 2.理论基础:theory of language is traditional linguistics.\theory of learning is Faculty Psychology. 3.核心focus: grammar is regarded as the core of language ,grammar is the main content in f l classroom. 4.语言技巧language skills: reading and writing are emphasized because literary language is considered superior to spoken language and is therefore the language students should study,little attention is paid to speaking and listening. 5.教学过程的方法teaching process techniques: reading.\ translation .\deductive teaching for grammar.\analysis and comparision \memorization \reading comprehension questions\ written work\ 6. 主要实践技巧main the principal practice technique : translation from and into the target language 7.教学单位the sentence is the basic unit of language teaching and learning. 8.most important aspect of language :the written form of language is most important aspect of language. 9.本族语的应用the teacher use the native language of students as the main medium of instruction. 10.强调重点the teacher emphasizes accuracy rather than fluceny. 11.最终目的objectives: the ultimate purpose of G-T method is to enable the learners to read and translate the literature, the other object are to provide students with good mental exercises that helps to develop their minds and to gain a better understanding of the first language. Background背景--The history of the Grammar-Translation Method is not fully and carefully documented. ?There is evidence that grammar analysis and translation began to be the basic procedures in foreign language teaching from the 16th century, when modern languages such as French, Italian and English gained in importance as a result of political changes in Europe. The modern languages provided one of the conditions for grammar analysis and the application of grammatical rules in translation exercises in teaching Latin. ?The second impetus for the procedures of grammar analysis and translation in teaching Latin came from the social needs of European countries. The main purpose of learning Latin was to study the classical culture, which was worshipped in the Renaissance. Grammar analysis and translation proved to be effective means in study foreign culture through literary works. ?Some people believed that the mind of human beings could be trained by logical analysis of the classic language, extensive memorization of complicated rules and paradigms and translation between languages. Only in the late 18th century did the regular combination of grammar rules with translation into the target language become the principal practice technique. Therefore, it is accepted by most experts of foreign language teaching that the Grammar-Translation Method originated from the 18th century. In the 19th century, more experts of foreign language teaching adopted the strategy of combining grammar rules with translation and the Grammar-Translation Method became the principal method of teaching modern languages in schools. Definition定义--It is a method of foreign or second language teaching which uses translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. At one time it was called classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages of Latin and Greek. Main features主要特点-- ?Grammar is the core of language, and language materials are arranged according to the grammar system. ?The main teaching activities are analysis, explanation and translation. ?The major practice is translating from and into the target language. ?The teaching focus is reading writing. ?First language is the main medium of instruction. ?The sentence is the basic unit of language teaching and learning. ?Language accuracy is emphasized. Objectives目的---The objectives of learning a foreign language in a Grammar-Translation Method classroom are to enable the learners: ?to read and translate its literature; ?to understand the target language; ?to help develop their minds; ?to gain a better understanding of the first language. An ultimate purpose of learning a foreign language in a Grammar-Translation classroom is to enable the learners to read and translate its literature. Students are required to memorize the grammatical rules in order to understand the target language. The other objectives of method are to provide students with good mental exercises that helps develop their minds, and to gain a better understanding of the first language. Procedures过程---The main procedures for a typical lesson with the Grammar-Translation Method can be divided into three phases. The activities in each phase are described below: ?Phase One ①The teacher reads and explain the new words and expressions in the first language. ②The teacher teaches the new grammar with deductive method. ?Phase Two ①Students are asked to read a few sentences out aloud and translated them into the first language. ②The teacher analyses some difficult sentence and translates them into their native language first literally and then freely. ③Students read the studied part of the passage silently and ask the teacher questions they can not answer by themselves. ?Phase Three ①Students are asked to write the answers to the questions about the reading passage. ②Students are asked to do other written work that is meant to reinforce the new grammar items and vocabulary. Techniques方法和技巧--- A Grammar-Translation teacher usually uses the following techniques to help realize the course objectives: ?Reading Reading passages are planned around the sequenced grammatical structures and vocabulary to be studied and are excepted from literary works or carefully written by a compiler, including particular grammar rules and vocabulary. ?Translation Translation can be employed in presenting a new grammatical item, understanding a new passage or as exercises at the end of a lesson. ?Deductive teaching of grammar Grammar rules are taught directly by the teacher, with exceptions to each rules noted. ?Analysis and comparison Difficult sentences are analyzed in detail and compared with the first language sentences. ?Memorization Students are required to memorize bilingual word lists and grammatical rules. ?Reading comprehension questions Different questions are designed for students to answer to check the understanding of the reading passage. ?Written work Fill-in-the-blanks is one kind if written work. Using new words to make up sentences is another type of written work. Composition is frequently employed in traditional foreign language teaching. Theory of language语言理论--?All languages originate from one language and are ruled by a common grammar The theory of language underlying in the Grammar-translation Method was derived from Comparative Historical Linguistics. Some linguists believed that all languages originated from one language and were ruled by a common grammar. ?The written form of the language is superior to the spoken form. The Grammar-Translation Method belongs to the school of traditional linguistics which believed that the written form of language is superior to the spoken form. The traditional linguists gave priority of the written form and took words as their starting point. When discussing the rules of language, they emphasized such matters as correctness, the purity of a language and literary excellence. ?The students’ first language is the reference system in the learning of the target language. In foreign language teaching, the target language is primarily interpreted as a system of rules to be observed in texts and sentences and to be related to the fir st language rules and meanings. The students’ first language is the reference system in the learning of the target language. Theory of learning学习理论---?The mind of human beings has various faculities that can be trained separately.?Understanding and memorization of complicated grammatical rules of languages help to develop mentality. ?Latin grammar is the most logical and well-organized grammar. ?The language was a body of knowledge to be learned, with an emphasis on intellectual rigor. Advantages-优点?It makes use of the first language. In Grammar-Translation Method, the first language is maintained as the reference system in the learning of the second language. ?It helps students develop reading comprehension and production of written language. Systematic study of grammatical rules plays an important role in fostering students’ ability of reading comprehension and producing grammatically correct sentences. The focus on understanding literary texts provides the situation in which reading and writing are well trained. ?It is easy for teacher to use. The Grammar-Translation Method makes few demands on teacher although it often creates frustration for students. It is relatively easy to apply. Disadvantages缺点---?Overemphasis on translation, dependence on first language. Overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependence on the first language. ?Too much emphasis on reading and writing, neglect of listening and speaking. It put too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speaking. ?Not meeting the communicative and practical needs of the students. Knowing a large number of grammatical rules can not ensure that students can use them appropriately in real communicative situation. The texts are mostly taken from literary works. T he language learned often doesn’t meet the practical needs of the learners. ?Rote-learning Memorizing grammar rules and bilingual word lists does not motivate students to actively communicate in the target language. 1-How did the Grammar-Translation Method develop into its present form? Before the 16th century, Latin was the language of communication in the Western World. Then in the 16th century, modern languages such as French, Italian and English gained in importance as a result of political changes in Europe. With the development of modern languages, Latin gradually became displaced as a living language. The main purpose of learning Latin was to study the classical culture. Grammar analysis and translation proved to be effective means in study foreign culture through literary works. The mind of human beings could be trained by logical analysis of the classic language, extensive memorization of complicated rules and paradigms and translation between languages. Grammar analysis and translation became the basic procedures in the 18th century. Thus the Grammar-Translation Method became the principal method of teaching modern languages in schools. 2-What is the focus of a Grammar-Translation classroom? It is the teaching of the foreign language grammar. Grammar is the core of language, and teaching materials are arranged according to the grammatical system. The processing of learning grammar is considered an important means of training mental abilities. 3-What language skills are emphasized? Reading and writing are emphasized in a Grammar-Translation classroom because literary language is regarded as superior to spoken language. Therefore the language learners should study written language. The focus on understanding literary texts provides the situation in which reading and writing abilities are well trained. 4-What is the main technique used in a Grammar-Translation classroom? Translation is the main techniques used in a Grammar-translation classroom. General speaking, literary translation should be followed by free translation; and sentence translation followed by passage translation. A Grammar-Translation teacher also uses the following techniques: reading passages from literary works; teaching grammar using a deductive approach; analyzing and comparing diffic ult sentences with students’ first language; memorizing word lists with the first language translation; and memorizing grammar rules and paradigms; using questions to check students’ comprehension of the reading passage; using fill-in-the-blank exercises, making up sentences and writing composition. 5-What is the most important aspect of language according to the Grammar-Translation Method? According to the Grammar-Translation Method, grammar is the most important aspect of language, which is viewed as a system of rules. Systematic study of grammatical rules play an important role in fostering students’ ability of reading comprehension and producing grammatically correct sentences. Understanding and mastering the morphology and syntax will develop students’ ability of analyzing and solving problems. 6-Are the techniques of Grammar-Translation acceptable to you? Why? I don’t think the techniques of Grammar-translation are acceptable to us. We can find some disadvantages in the Grammar-Translation Method. First, overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependence on the first language. Second, it put too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speaking. Third, knowing a large number of grammatical rules can not ensure that students use them appropriately in real communicative situation. The texts are mostly taken from literary works. The language learned often doesn’t meet the practical needs of the learners. Last, memorizing grammar ru les and bilingual word lists does not motivate students to actively communicate in the target language. 7-Which of the principles of the Grammar-Translation Method do you think are still applicable in modern language teaching? We can discover some valuable principles of the Grammar-Translation Method are still applicable in modern language teaching and learning, such as knowledge of grammar (language rules) facilitates learning. The term ―grammar‖ is so familiar to linguists, language teachers and learners that it is sometimes difficult to stand back and look at it clearly. Some linguists have argued that grammar teaching is unnecessary, and emphasis should not be put on the teaching of grammar. On the other hand, other linguists have argued that grammar is an immensely pervasive phenomenon. It is an integral part of language, so that the more we can find out about how grammar is learned and used, the better placed we will be to teach it effectively. We learners consider that grammar is not only necessary, but also very important in language teaching and learning. The understanding of grammar helps us build up confidence in using the target language and encourages us to use the language accurately and appropriately. We think that grammar teaching and learning can be useful in learning the target language. But we also think that grammar teaching and learning should focus on developing the learners’ communicative ability more than presenting and explaining grammatical rules. Nevertheless, we feel that there is still room for improvement, especially the design of the exercises in the materials since we have not yet experienced the effect on listening and speaking in grammar teaching. 第三章直接法(berlitz method ) got its name form the assumption that meanings are to be connected directly with the target language, without going through the process of the translating into the students‖ mother language. 1.语言技巧Language skills: regarding listening and speaking as the basis of reading and writing is strategic in fostering the four skills 2.焦点:correct pronunciation is emphasized, pronunciation is paid attention to from the beginning of a course. 5.most important aspect of language : the spoken form of language in the target language, the sentence is considered more important than the word. 6.目的objectiv es:(1) developing the students’ ability to communication in the target language (2) learn to think in the target language (3) can use the target language to express themselves directly without referring the mother language (4) achieving automaticality of using the target language. 7.避免: the first language and translation exercises are completely avoided.\ an explicit grammar rule may never be given, grammar is learned inductively through listening and speaking activities. 8.技巧oral communication skills are regarded as basic. 9.教学 大纲 专科护士培训大纲语法等级大纲网络小说大纲模版专职安全员生产检查释经讲道讲章大纲 the syllabus is arranged according to situation or topics. 10.教学单位the unit in a language is the sentence. 11.教学过程的技巧: direct association \questions and answer exercises \conversation practice \ error correction \ dictation \inductive teaching of grammar \ listening comprehension tasks \ grade composition( familiar ----narratives --- free.) 12.教学步骤:three phases: presentation by direct association \ oral practice in the target language \ consolidation with written work. 14.How should language rules be learned: inductive through listening and speaking activities. The teacher sets up a few carefully chosen illustrations of a rule and leads students to discover the relationship of the new elements to others previously learned and to formulate their observations into the rule governing those examples .fill –in –blank exercises are often used to have students induce grammar rules they needs to fill in the blanks form examples in the text. 15.Why the first language is forbidden : the reason for the exclusive use of the foreign language in the direct method is to enable the students to think in the target language , so that they can use it to express themselves without referring to their mother tongue. background-背景--The Direct Method got its name from the assumption that meanings are to be connected directly with the target language, without going through the process of translating into the students’ native language. It was developed in the late 19th centur y as a reaction against the Grammar-Translation Method and out of the need for better language learning in a new world of industry and international trade and travel. In the mid and late 19th century, international exchanges increased very fast because of political and economical reasons. But the different languages used in different countries created a barrier in such exchanges. Increased opportunities for communication in spoken language among Europeans created a demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages. Therefore, language teaching innovations in the 19th century were inevitable. The Direct Method emerges as a result of the innovations. The new world in the late 19th century made the Direct Method not only a necessary but also a possibility. The rapid development of linguistics, psychology and education greatly stimulated the establishment of the Direct Method. The best known reformers in the mid-19th century was the Frenchman F. Gouin who applied his linguistic and psychological theories and developed an approach to teaching a foreign language on the basis of his observations of child first language learning . Another reform-minded language teacher was Berlitz who established the first Berlitz school in the U.S.A. in 1878. He used a method which is known as Berlitz Method and it was one school of the Direct Method. Definition ---is a method of foreign or second language teaching which insists that only the target language should be used in class and meaning should be communicated ―directly‖ by associating speech forms with actions, objects, mime, gestures and s ituations. It emphasizes the importance of spoken language. Therefore holds that reading and writing should be taught only after speaking .The Direct Method believes in the natural process of language learning and in the inductive teaching of grammar. Main features--- a. Students learn to think in the target language. b. Meaning is presented by relating directly to the physical world. c. Target language is the language of instruction and communication in the classroom. d. Grammar is learned inductively through listening and speaking activities. e. Correct pronunciation is emphasized. f. The syllabus is arranged semantically according to situations or topics. g. Spoken language is preferred to written language. h. The basic unit of language is the sentence. Objectives--- a. to foster the students’ ability to communicate in the target language; b. to enable the students to think in the target la nguage ; c. to train the four skills; d. to achieve correct pronunciation. The objectives of the Direct Method are to foster the students’ ability to communicate in the target language. The general goal of a language programme is to teach conversational skills. The reason for the exclusive use of the foreign language in the Direct Method is to enable the students to think in the target language. The teaching of all four basic language skills is not neglected, but reading and writing exercise should be based upon what the students practice orally first. Pronunciation is paid attention to from the beginning of a course. V ocabulary takes precedence over grammar. Procedures---Classroom procedures in the Direct Method can be roughly divided into three phases: Presentation by direct association; oral practice in the target language and consolidation with written work. Techniques--- In order to realize the goal of teaching ,a Direct Method teacher is usually found using the following techniques: a. Direct association. New language items are presented by associating meaning with the target language directly. b. Question and answer exercises. In order to have the newly-introduced language items fully understood by students, the teacher answers students’ questions and asks students to answer h er questions in full sentences. c. Conversation practice. Students are encouraged to ask other questions using the same grammatical structures they have practiced. d. Error correction. Students are not allowed to make mistakes. Their mistakes are immediately corrected by the teacher or by students themselves. e. Dictation. Dictation is used as a means to reinforce and test what the students have learned. f. Inductive teaching of grammar. Grammar is learned inductively through listening and speaking activities. g. Listening comprehension tasks. Designing listening comprehension tasks is one of the ways to establish a favorable classroom climate in the Direct Method. h. Graded composition. Writing can be introduced as a means of consolidation and evaluation in the Direct Method. Written work should be graded in the following sequence: first, reproduction of familiar reading texts; second, reproduction of narratives orally presented by the teacher; third, free composition. Theory of language--- The theory of language underlying the Direct Method was mainly derived from the following views by the innovators and reformers of the 19th century: a. Every language has its own structure. Every language has its own structure and cannot be forced into the straitjacket of Latin grammar. b. Spoken language comes before written language. Since the Spoken language comes into being before written language, speech patterns rather than grammar should be fundamental elements of language. c. Spoken language is a learnable system of sounds. Spoken language is a learnable system of sounds ,and sounds are best described by phonetic transcription. Training in phonetics will enable teachers and learners to pronounce the language accurately. d. Language and thought are closely linked. According to Gouin, verbal expression is intimately linked with thought about real events. Thoughts and corresponding utterances do not occur randomly or singly ; they came in sequences and ends-means series. Theory of learning---a Foreign language learning is analogous to first language acquisition . The learning of a foreign language is analogous to first language acquisition, so a direct association between forms and meanings in the target language should be established. b. Language and the physical world are directly associated. Direct association of language with objects and persons of the immediate environment is emphasized in the Direct Method. c. Learners acquire rules of grammar inductively. Rather than teaching grammar deductively, teachers encourage learners to induce rules of grammar through active use of the target language in the classro om. d. Language meaning is taught by using learners’ sensory experience . The best method of teaching language meaning is the one using learners’ sensory experience, generally visual perception Advantages---The following advantages can be found in the Direct Method: a. Use of the target language in the classroom; forming the habit of thinking in the target language. The use of the target language as a means of instruction and communication in the classroom contributes greatly to forming the habit of thinking in the target language, which is necessary in efficient real communication. b. Emphasis on language practice; achieving autonomy in using the target language The emphasis on practice with new language items and on language skills, rather than on language knowledge is important in achieving autonomy of using the target language. c. Conforming to the objectives of modern language teaching The emphasis on spoken language conforms to the objectives of modern language teaching. Special attention paid to pronunciation and intonation is desirable in teaching spoken language. d. Favorable atmosphere for learning Regarding listening and speaking as the basis of reading and writing is strategic in fostering for four skills. Using full sentences as teaching units makes foreign language learning more natural and efficient for students to understand a new text and acquire a language. Disadvantages---There are also aspects in the Direct Method which are not satisfactory: a. Overemphasizing the similarities between first language acquisition and second language learning . Overemphasizing on the similarities between naturalistic first language acquisition and classroom foreign language learning results in the exclusive use of the target language. The absolute avoidance of the native tongue occasionally troubles the Direct Method in teaching the meaning of abstract concepts. b. Students’ lack of knowledge of the target language grammar. Without e xplicit grammar explanation, students lack necessary knowledge of the target language. As a result, they tend to produce utterance with a lot of grammatical mistakes in them. c. Very demanding for non-native teachers. The Direct Method places a high demand on the teacher. It requires native-speaker teachers or teachers who have native –speaker-like fluency in the target language. 习 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 -Could be used by all foreign language teachers at all levels? Why or Why not?--- No, we don’t think so. The Direct Method requires native teachers or teachers who have native-speaker-like fluency in the target language. In the Direct Method classroom, the teacher should present sections of a text or the whole text by direct association between the target language and meaning. The teacher should deal with specific language items which the students ask her to explain. The teacher should ask comprehension question about the text, making sure that students have a thorough understanding of the text. The teacher should ask students questions about everyday life, etc. In a word, in the Direct Method classroom, teachers should have a high ability to use the target language organizing the classroom activities. The Direct Method places a High demand on the teachers. ---How should language rules be learned?---language rules are learned inductively through listening and speaking activities. The teacher sets up a few carefully chosen illustrations of a rule and leads the students to discover the relationship of the new elements to other previously learned and to formulate their observations into the rule governing those examples. In other words, students have to induce grammatical rules from examples in the text. A language could best learned by being used actively in the classroom. --How understand the concept of ―direct‖?---The Direct Method assumes that meanings of the target language should be connected directly with the physical world: its actions, objects, persons, situations, etc. without translating or referring to the learners’ mother tong ue. Only the target language should be used in the classroom in communicating meaning . Foreign language learning should follow the natural process of first language acquisition where a direct association between language forms and meanings is established. --What areas of language are considered more important?---Oral practice in the target language is often used in the Direct Method classroom. Speech patterns and structures, rather than grammar, are considered fundamental since the spoken language came into being before the written language. The sentence is regarded as a more useful unit of language instruction than the word. Between vocabulary and grammar, the former comes before the latter. --What language skills are emphasized?---Listening and speaking skills are emphasized, though the teaching of all four skills is not neglected. Regarding listening and speaking as the basis of reading and writing is strategic in fostering the four skills. Designing listening comprehension tasks is one of the ways to establish a favorable classroom climate in the Direct method. It mainly uses such techniques as question-and answer, dictation and conversation practice. Special attention paid to pronunciation and intonation is desirable in teaching spoken language. Reading and writing exercises should be based upon what the students have practiced orally first. --What techniques are useful in modern language teaching?---Such teaching techniques as question-and-answer, dictation and conversation practice are useful in modern language teaching. The Direct Method advocates the language should be learned through direct association of form and meaning. It mainly uses the teaching techniques above which are still widely used in foreign language teaching classroom today. The forms of dictation and compound dictation are also appeared in the College English Test. --Why first language is forbidden?---The direct methodologists consider foreign language learning as similar to first language acquisition. The learner should try to establish a direct association between language forms and meanings in the target language. The first language is considered an interfe ring factor, rather than a reference. In order to develop the students’ ability to communicate in the target language, studen ts should be encouraged to think in the target language. The best method is not to make the learner learn the language rules, but to provide direct practice in listening and speaking through imitation and repetition. The best method of teaching meaning is to make students listen, look and say, i.e. using learners’ sensory experience, generally visual perception. 第四章口语法 1.理论基础theory of language is British structuralism .\ theory of learning isbehaviourist habit-formation theory. 2.语法:item of grammar are graded , grammar should be taught inductively , not directly ,an explicit explanation of grammar rules is discouraged. 3.强调的重点most important aspect of language : structure and accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar are regarded as crucial.. Listening and oral practice are emphasized 4.教学要求begin with the spoken language ,material is taught orally before it is presented in the written form. \ the target language is the language of the classroom, translation should be avoided.\ new language point are introduced and practiced situationaly.\ 5.教学过程的方法employs situations for presenting new sentence patterns and drill-based manner of practicing them. the practice techniques generally consists of guided repetition and substitution activities, including choral repetition, individual imitation , dictation, drills and controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks. 7.四项技能language skills:listening and practice are emphasized. Are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammartical basis is established. reading and writing 8.对待错误态度errors are to be avoided at all costs. 9.Objectives: to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language. without referring their native language. 10.How does the teacher respond to the students’ error : the teacher indicates the students’ error and gets students to corre ct themselves so they will be encouraged to listen to each other carefully. where possible the teacher does not simply correct the mistake herself. 11.教师使用此法作用The goal of teacher to use the oral approach: it is to help students to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language (l-s-r-w) \ the teacher is the essential to the success of the approach ,in the presentation stage of a lesson ,he as a model, a skillful manipulator .in the practices, he lookout. The student simply to listen and repeat , to responses and to ask questions each other. 12.教具The approach also emphasize the function of the textbook(a guide ) and visual aids( wall chart \ flash cards \picture \realia) background---The Oral Approach originated with the work of British linguists in the 1920s and 1930s. Two of the most important and influential figures of the approach were Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby. Both of them were familiar with the Direct Method, but they were dissatisfied with its practice, and they had recognized its limitation in their teaching experience of English. Therefore, what they attempted was to develop a methodology of language teaching that was theoretically well-grounded, intellectually ordered and practically workable. The result was the development of an approach to methodology that involved systematic principles and procedures that could be applied to the selection and organization of the content of a language course. Palmer spent many years in Japan working towards two complementary objectives in English language teaching. The first was the realization of the principles of the Oral Method in a concrete form. Another objectives was to develop principles of vocabulary control. According to Palmer and some other linguists of that time, vocabulary played one of the most important role in foreign language learning, and frequency counts showed that a core of 2000 words occurred frequently in daily use and writing text. Palmer and Hornby had also paid much attention to the important role of grammar in their writings. In their view, organization of grammatical content of a language course should be based on the principle of gradation. It was an obvious requirement of any course that it should proceed from easy to difficult without sharp breaks. Hornby and others analyzed the English language and classified its major grammatical structures into sentences patterns which could be used to have oral practices. Oral Approach: Definition---The Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching refers to an approach to language teaching developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s. It is a grammar-based method in which principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points presented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities. Main features--- a. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. language materials is taught orally before it is presented in the written form. b. The target language is the language of the classroom. The target language is the language of instruction. Translation should be avoided. c. New language is introduced and practised in situations. New language points are introduced and practised situationally, i.e. words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practised in meaningful contexts and not be taught as isolated, disconnected elements. d. Common core words are covered. V ocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered. e. Simple forms of grammar are taught before complex ones, and inductively. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones, and inductively. f. Reading and writing are introduced latter. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established. Objectives---The objectives of the Oral approach are to help the students: a. to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language. b. to obtain accuracy in pronunciation and grammar. The objectives of the Oral approach are to help the learners to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs. Procedures---The Oral Approach employs different classroom procedures according to the level of the class. The classroom procedures generally consists of: a. Listening practice b. Choral imitation c. Individual imitation d. Isolation e. Building up to a new model f. Elicitation g. Substitution drill h. Question-answer drilling i. Correction Techniques--- The practical techniques in the oral Approach generally consists of: a. new sentence patterns presented in situations. b. Drill-based practice c. Guided repetition and substitution activities d. Dictation, imitation and controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks Theory of language---a. Language is identified with speech. The British structuralism considered that language was identified with speech, and speech ability was approached through oral practice of structure. b. The basic elements in a language are rule-governed. The British linguists believed that the basic elements in a language were rule-governed, that is ,lower systems of word classes(nouns, adjectives, and so on) led to higher level systems of phrases and sentences. c. Emphasis is on the close relationship between the structure, context and situation. d. Primary importance is attached to meaning, context and situation. The British linguists emphasized the close relationship between the structure of a language and context and situation in which the language was used. Several language theoreticians, such as Firth, Halliday developed their views of language in which the priority importance was attached to meaning, context and setting. Oral Approach: Theory of learning---a. Behaviorist habit-formation theory. The Oral Approach /Situational Language Teaching believes in a theory of learning that is based on a type of behaviorist Habit-formation theory. Foreign language learning is considered basically a process of habit formation. Habit-formation is Palmer’s core methodological principle. b. Language learning in real life differs from language learning in the classroom. Palmer specified the distinction between language learning in real life differs from language learning in the classroom. He made the point that the former was for the acquisition of spoken language, the latter was for the development of literacy. c. Classroom language teaching should follow naturalistic principles of language learning. Palmer viewed that classroom language teaching should follow naturalistic principles of language learning. Rather than focus on explanation of grammatical rules in classroom teaching, the teacher must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the target language in the classroom. d. Focus is on the habit of foreign language speech patterns. Palmer focused on his main interest in the crucial feature of spontaneity, namely, the habit of foreign language speech patterns. Spontaneity could be achieved through using it in actual practice in real language situations and through repetition of the speech patterns, Learners should be provided with grammatically correct sentence patterns. Advantages---a. The first attempt to establish theoretical principles. The Oral Approach/Situational language teaching has made the first attempt to establish theoretical principles to develop a methodological framework for teaching English as a foreign language in ELT history. These attempts mark the beginnings of the discipline of a applied linguistics. b. Making up some shortcomings of the Direct Method, emphasis on the function of situation. In language teaching practice, this approach has made up some shortcomings of the Direct Method. The teaching content is graded, and the students will not suffer from the difficulties of a flow of ungraded speech in the target language. In presenting the language structure, it emphasizes the function of situation which can help students to apply what they have learned to real-life practice. Oral Approach: Disadvantages---a. Not concerned with appropriateness or rules for use in real discourse. b. The approach being largely a grammar-based one. This approach is not concerned with appropriateness or with rules for use in real discourse. The situations are vehicle through which the grammatical syllabus is conveyed. Therefore, this approach is still largely a grammar-based one. Characteristics--- The main characteristics of the Oral Approach are as follows: a. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Language materials is taught orally before it is presented in the written form. b. The target language is the language of the classroom. Translation should be avoided. c. New language points are introduced and practised situationally. d.V ocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered. e. Simple forms of grammar are taught before complex ones, and inductively. f. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established. --areas of language are emphasized?--- V ocabulary and grammar are emphasized by the Oral Approach. A knowledge of 2000 common core words is believed to assist foreign language learning. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs. -characteristics make it so distinctive from the Direct Method?---The Oral Approach insists that new language points be taught situationally. It is this characteristic that gained the approach the name ―situational language teaching‖. The Direct Method holds that meanings and t he target language should be associated directly without referring to students’ first language. --How the teacher respond to students’ errors?--- Errors are to be avoided at all costs. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial. The teacher is ever on the lookout for gram matical and structural errors. She will indicate students’ error and correct it either by herself or get students to correct themselves. -language skills are emphasized?--- All the four basic skills are considered important, however, oral proficiency is seen as basic. Before students read and write any words and grammar rules, the teacher should teach them orally first. --Oral Approach and Audiolingual Method: ----Similarities and differences in terms of language theories?---In terms of language theories, there exist little differences between the Oral Approach and the Audiolingual Method. The two approaches have the following similarities: Both hold a structural view of language. Structural linguistics views language as a system of structurally related elements for the expression of meaning. Both identify language with speech, and speech ability is approached though oral practice of structure. However, the Oral Approach was developed by British applied linguists, while the Audiolingual Method was developed by the American structuralists. ---Oral Approach and Audiolingual Method: Similarities and differences in terms of learning theories?--- In terms of learning theories, the two methods-the Oral Approach and the Audiolingual Method also have something in common: Both believe in a theory of learning that is based on a type of behaviourist habit-formation theory. Foreign language learning is considered basically a process of habit formation. However, there are also differences between them: While both methods emphasize the establishment of good speech habits through repetition of sentence patterns, the Oral Approach holds that new language points should be introduced and practised situationally, that is, in meaningful context, not be taught as isolated, disconnected elements. And the Oral Approach encouraged direct and spontaneous use of the target language in the classroom. The Audiolingual Method holds learning a language is a process of acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-response chains, a mechanical process of habit formation. It overemphasizes language form, not language content, students are not expected to make spontaneous, personal contributions, etc. -What are the principles for the selection of language content in language teaching?---The principles for selecting vocabulary is that an essential core vocabulary is covered. Learners should learn the most frequently used words, about 2000 common core words. The English vocabulary needed for teaching as a foreign language is chosen for the following criteria: a. They are the words most frequently used by people whose native language is English. b. They include all the structural words. c. They include words useful in explaining the meaning of other frequently used words. d. They include words that are useful because other words can be built from them. The items of grammar are graded following the principles that simple forms should be taught before complex ones. And grammar should be taught inductively and students learn to use a few patterns at a time. These patterns should be interesting and be presented in a carefully ordered sequence. --What is the goal of teachers?--- The goal of teachers who use the Oral Approach is to help the students to get a practical command of the four basic skills of language through structures. Among the four skills(listening, speaking, reading and writing), oral skill is seen as basic. Before learners read and write new structures and new vocabulary, the teacher should teach them orally. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs. 第五章听说法 1、起源1950年代于美国,主要为军事目的。早期称为informant method 请本族语的人作为the informant, the linguist 语言模仿的源泉,并且监管学习的经验。 2、人物:charles Fries贡献最大,提出此法,又称为aural-oral method or structural approach,是把结构主义的语言学和行为主义的心理学相结合形成此法 3、教学步骤1. recognition 2.imination and repitition 3.pattern drills 4. follow-up activityies 4、基本特点1、区分四种技巧,强调先听说,后读写2、用对话来展示语言3、强调一定的实践技巧,mimicry ,memorization ,and pattern drills 3、不鼓励用母语。4、用语言实验室和教具 5、主要目的:1、使学生用目标语交流2、student achieve accurate pronunciation and correct grammar 3.在语境中能快速反应。4、the development of mastery in all four language skills 5.use it automatically without stop to think . 6.主要技巧:1.repetition drill 2.simple substitution drill 3.progressive drill 4.transformation drill 5.question-and-answer drill 6.expansion drill 7.clause combination drill 8.chain drill 9. backward build-up drill 10.mini-dialogue 11.completion 12.use of minimal pairs background---The Audiolingual Method was developed in the U.S. during the Second World War. At that time, the U.S. government found it a great necessity to set up a special language training programme to supply the war with language personnel. Therefore, the government commissioned American universities to develop foreign language programmes for military personnel. Thus the Army Specialized Training Programme (ASTP) was established in 1942. The objectives of the army programme were for students to attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages. The method used was known as the ―informant method‖, since it used a native speaker of the langu age, the informant, and a linguist. The informant served as a source of language for imitation, and the linguist supervised the learning experience. This intensive system adopted by the army achieved excellent results. Linguists and applied linguists during this period were becoming increasingly involved in the teaching of English as a foreign language. In 1941 the first English language Institute in the U.S. was established in the University of Michigan. The director of the institute was Charles Fries, who applied the principles of structural linguistics to language teaching. The result is an approach which advocated aural training first, then pronunciation training, followed by speaking, reading and writing. The emergence of the Audiolingual Method resulted from the increased attention to foreign language teaching in the U.S. towards the end of the 1950s. The need for a radical change and rethinking of foreign language teaching methodology made language teaching specialists set about developing a method that was applicable to conditions in U.S. college and university classroom. They drew on the earlier experience of the army programmes and the Aural-Oral or Structural Approach developed by Fries and his colleagues, adding insights taken from behaviorist psychology. This combination of structural linguistic theory, aural-oral procedures, and behaviourist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method, which was widely adopted for teaching foreign languages in North American colleges and universities. Main features--- By drawing on the structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology, the Audiolingual method formed its own distinctive characteristics. There are mainly five of them: a. Separation of language skills into listening, speaking, reading and writing, with emphasis on the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing; b. Use of dialogues as the chief means of presenting the language; c. Emphasis on certain practice techniques: mimicry, memorization and pattern drills; d. Discouraging the use of the mother tongue in the classroom; e. Use of language lab. Objectives---The general objectives of the Audiolingual Method is to enable the target language communicatively. Short-range objectives include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and production of correct sentences in writing. In other words, the objectives of the Audiolingual Method are the development of mastery in all four language skills, beginning with listening and speaking, and using these as a basis for the teaching of reading and writing. Long-range objective or the ultimate goal is to develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speakers have, to use it automatically without stopping to think. Procedures---In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed: a. Recognition; Students first hear a model dialogue (either read by the teacher or on the tape) containing the key structures that are the focus of the lesson and try to understand the meaning of the dialogue with the help of the teacher’s gestures, mime, context or situation established in advance. b. Imitation and repetition: The stude nts repeat each line of the dialogue, individually and in chorus. The students must imitate the right pronunciation, intonation and fluency. c. Patterns drill: Certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basic for pattern drills of different kinds. d. Follow-up activities: The students now are allowed to look at their textbooks. They are usually asked to do some follow-up reading, writing or vocabulary activities. This will guide their use of the language. Techniques--- Dialogue and pattern practice form the basis of audiolingual classroom practice. Yhe use of them is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. The techniques used by the audiolingual Method are: a. Repetition drill: This drill is often used to teach the lines of the dialogue. Students are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible. b. Substitution drill: The students repeat the line from the dialogue which the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. c. Question-and answer drill: The drill gives students practice with answering questions. d. Expansion drill: This drill helps students to produce longer sentences bit by bit, gradually achieving fluency. e. Clause combination drill: Students learn to combine two simple sentences into a complex ones. f. Backward build-up drill: This drill is used when a long line of a dialogue is giving students trouble. The teacher breaks down the line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line. Then, following the teacher’ cue, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. g. Chain drill: A chain drill gets its name from the chain of conversation that forms around the classroom as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins the chain by greeting a particular student, or asking him a question. That student responds, then turns to the student sitting next to him. h. Completion: Students hear an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeat the utterance in completed form. i. Use of minimal pairs: The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound; students are first asked to find the difference between the two words and later to say the two words. Theory of language--- The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the 1930s and 1940s. The view then came to be known as structural linguistics with Bloomfield and Fries as its representatives. Structural linguistics views language as a system of structurally related elements for the expression of meaning. These elements are phonemes, morphemes, words, structures, and sentence types. The grammatical system consists of a list of grammatical elements and rules for their linear combination into words, phrases and sentences. According to a structural view, language has the following characteristics: a. Elements in a language are produced in a rule-governed(structural) way. b. Language samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of description. c. Language is structured like a pyramid, that is, linguistic levels are systems within systems. d. Language is speech, not writing. e. languages are different. The views of language above offered the foundation for thhe Audiolingual Method. Theory of learning---a. Behaviourist psychology The learning theory of Audiolingualism is the behavioural psychology which is an empirically based approach to the study of human behaviour. Behaviourism tries to explain how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behaviour of an individual (a response) without using concepts like ―mind ‖ or ―ideas‖ or any kind of mental behaviour. Behaviourist psycholo gy states that people are conditioned to learn many forms of behaviour, including language, through the process of training or conditioning. b. The three crucial elements in learning: a stimulus, a response and reinforcement. The occurrence of these behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements in learning: a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour; a response triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future. Learning is thus described as the formation of association between stimuli and responses. c. The application of this theory to language learning. To apply this theory to language learning is to identify the organism as the foreign language learner, the behaviour as verbal behaviour, the stimulus as what is taught (languagr input), the response as the learner’s reaction to the stimulus, and the reinforcement as the approval or praise (or discouragement) of the teacher or fellow students. d. Language learning: a mechanical process of habit formation. According to this behaviourist psychology, learning a language is a process of acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-response chains, a mechanical process of habit formation. Advantages---a. The first method to have a theory: The andiolingual theory is probably the first language teaching theory that openly claims to be derived from linguistics and psychology. b. Making language teaching possible to large groups of learners: It attempts to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. With large classes, drills are of particular use in that they maximize student participation. c. Emphasizing sentence production, control over grammatical structures and development of oral ability: The Audiolingual Method stresses syntactical progression and uses pattern drills to help the students gain control over grammatical structures which is a much more interesting way of learning grammar than working through written exercises. What’s more, drilling can be positively benef icial in helping a student to develop his oral ability. d. developing simple techniques and making use of language lab: It leads to the development of simple techniques of varied, graded and intensive practice of specific features of the language, and more scientifically selected and systematically arranged materials and structural patterns to go with. Moreover, the teaching techniques with tape recordings and language lab drills offer practice in speaking and listening which are considered of primary importance in language learning. e. Developing the separation of the language skills: The Audiolingual Method develops the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device, that is , listening, speaking, reading and writing. It lays emphasis on listening and speaking which did not gain so much importance from Grammar-Translation Method. Definition---is a method of foreign language teaching which emphasizes the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing. It uses dialogues as the main form of language presentation and drills as the main training techniques. Mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom. Disadvantages---a. Weak basis of its theory: The theoretical basis of the Audiolingual Method was found to be weak. The behaviourist theory could not possibly serve as a model of how humans learn language, since much of human language is not imitated behaviour but is created anew from underlying knowledge of abstract rules. b. Not developing language competence, lack of effectiveness, and boredom caused by endless pattern drill: Techniques such as pattern practice, drilling, memorization, etc. might lead to language like behaviour, but they are not resulting in competence. Teachers complain about the lack of effectiveness of the techniques in the long run, and students complain about the boredom caused by endless pattern drills. c. Learners having little control over their learning: Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli, and thus have little control over the content, pace or style of learning. They are not encouraged to initiate interaction, because this may lead to mistakes. d. Teacher’s domina tion of the class: The teacher’s role is central and active. It is the teacher who always dominates the class. The teacher models the target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, and monitors and corrects the learner’s performance. e. Teacher-oriented materials: Materials in the Audiolingual Method are primarily teacher-oriented. The teacher’s book contains the struct ured sequence of lessons to be followed, and the dialogues, drills and other practice activities. -- conditions are needed if you want to apply the Audiolingual Method in your teaching?---The general objective of the Audiolingual Method is to enable the students to use the target language communicatively. They should be able to respond quicklyand accurately in speech situations. Therefore, teaching materials should be structurally-based, the chief means of presenting the language should be the use of dialogues. And it is better to have tape recorders and other audiovisual equipment which often have central roles in an audiolingual classroom. A language lab is considered essential in it. If these conditions are met, we could possibly apply the Audiolingual Method in our teaching. --anything useful in your teaching situation? Why?---Yes, there are many useful things we can learn from the Audiolingual Method: a. It states language is a structured system and rule governed. If language learning is organized according to its structure, language learning would be easier, especially to adult learners. b. The Audiolingual Method considers language ability made up of four skills and these skills can be taught separately. Since the natural order of skill acquisition is listening, speaking, reading and writing, the Method gives the primary stress to the first two of the four skills. Speech is more basic to language than the written form, and listening and speaking are the basic form of verbal communication. In the classroom, the language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing. C. Using patterning drills is the center of practice in Audiolingual Method. It can help students not only gain control over grammatical structures, but also develop their oral ability. D. the Audiolingual Method also provides language teachers with many useful techniques. The simple drilling techniques provide varied, graded and intensive practice of specific features of the language. The simple and direct approach is especially appropriate for young students and less gifted ones. Moreover, the teaching techniques with tape recordings and language lab drills offer practice in speaking and listening which are considered of primary importance in language learning. ---Are structure drills valuable pedagogical activities? Why?---Yes, structure drills are valuable pedagogical activities in language learning. With large classes, drills are of particular use in that they can maximize students’ participation. A one-word cue on the part of the teacher elicit a complete utterance from the students and an enormous number of such utterances can be produced within the space of two minutes. With judicious mixing of choral and individual drill, each student can have the chance to respond productively about five times a minute in classes of twenty students or fewer. However, drills should be used judiciously, if over used, students will get bored. --Could you adapt any of techniques to your own teaching? Why?---Yes, we could adapt some kinds of techniques used by the Audiolingual Method, such as dialogues and pattern drills. The use of dialogues and pattern drills is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. They form the basis of audiolingual classroom practice. Dialogues are thought to provide meaningful context for the key structures and to illustrate situations in which those structures might be used. Certain sentence patterns and grammar points are included within the dialogue. Various kinds of pattern drills are used for different purposes. Some key structures from the dialogue are selected and used the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. --Does it make sense to you that language learning results from habit formation? Why?---To a certain extent, language learning results from habit formation. The model of stimulus-response-reinforcement accounts for how a human being learns a language, the stimulus is what is taught(language input), the response is the learner’s reaction to the stimulus, and the reinforcement is the praise of the teacher or fellow students. The habit is the result of stimulus, correct response and reward again and again. The more frequently this happens, the stronger the habit becomes. Language learning is a process of acquiring a set of language stimulus-response chains, a mechanical process of habit formation. --Is dialogue a useful way to introduce new material? Why?---Yes, dialogue is useful way to introduce new material. Dialogues can provide a natural context for the language forms as long as it is from real communication, not artificially expressed. Dialogues show the learner how language is used in real language interaction, and they can be good models of oral communication. Dialogues are also believed to reflect the cultural aspects of the target language. certain sentence patterns and grammar points are included within the dialogue. These patterns and points are later practiced in drills based on the line of the dialogue. --Should dialogues be memorized through mimicry of the teacher’s model? W hy?---No, dialogues should not be memorized through mimicry of the teacher’s model. A dialogue is an individual case of language communication between two persons. It only tells the students t hat when the participants take a certain kind of social role, in a certain kind of situation, about a certain topic, conversation goes that way. Dialogues are thought to provide meaningful context for the key structures and to illustrate situations in which those structures might be used. Here, meaning is the center of a dialogue, and human communication varies. No dialogue is held in exactly the same way, in the same kind of situation and about same topic. Students do not have to memorize the teacher’s model. Students should try their best to develop their language com petence, including communicative competence, discourse competence and strategic competence, etc, so that they can use the target language communicatively. --Should the commission of errors be prevented as much as possible? Why?---It depends on the using of language situation and the purpose of language teaching. When the focus of teaching is on language form, and when the students are doing mechanical pattern drills in the classroom, the teacher should correct the students whenever errors are committed. But when the students are engaged in communication, and the focus is on getting meaning across, errors should not be tacked on the spot, because they would be too much concerned with language forms and would never develop oral ability. Unless communication is affected by the errors, students should not be corrected. In the same way, there might be more correction of errors in written than in oral communication. ---Should the major focus be on the structural pattern of the target language? Why?---It depends on the developmental language stages of the learners. The major forms could be on the structural pattern of the target language when your objective at the beginning stage is to get the students to master the structures of the language. It aslso depends on your view of language and your view of language teaching. If you hold that language is a system of structures without considering the other aspects of the language, the major focus should be on the structural patterns. And if you consider language teaching is to teach language as a body of knowledge, not to develop students’ ability as a communication tool, then the focus should be on the structural pattern of the target language. Otherwise, the major focus could be on the other areas. --Which of the principles of the Audiolingual Method are acceptable to you?---Among the five principles of the Audiolingual Method, we think ―Language is speech, not writting‖ and ―Language are different‖ are more acceptable to us . The former means that language is first speech and written form is only the recording of speech. Speech is more basic to language than the written form. In the classroom, the language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing. The later means that the native language and the target language have separate linguistic system, so there is usually no exact equivalent between two languages. The habits of the students’ native language would interfere with the students’ attempts to master the target language. They should be kept apart so that the students’ native language interfere as little as possible with the students’ learning of the foreign language. 第六章认知法1、主要反对听说法 2、起源于美国,又名the cognitive code method 理论基础是转换生成理论和认知心理学 3、人物:NoamChomsky ///piaget/J.B.Bruner//D.Ausubel 4、基本原理:强调学习是一个有意识的心理过程,强调学习要基于理解,四种技能同等重要 错误是不可避免的,正常的和必需的现象。 5、主要技巧:强调有意识的语法和语言规则的教学。听说是呈现大量材料。1、rule learning 2.meaningful practice 3.creativity 6.课堂练习方法1.discrimination 2.physical response 3.miscellaneous 7.教学步骤1、introduction of new materials 2.exercises 3.application activities. background---As the Audiolingual Method was on the decline in the 1960s and many shortcomings were found in it, the Cognitive Approach developed as an alternative, in response to the criticisms leveled against audiolingualism. In the meantime the structural linguistics gave way to the generative linguistic that turned the attention from mechanistic conditioning to meaningful learning. One of the major proponents of the generative-transformational school of linguistics is Noam Chomsky, the famous American linguists. The generative linguists are interested not only in describing language but also in explaining language. In other words, they attempt to find the what as well as the why in the study of language. Advantages---?Stress on creativity and meaning The cognitive Approach lays emphasis on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system. Language is characterized by rule-governed creativity and language learning is a creative process. ?More active use of mental power Language learning is a process which involves active mental processes. In Cognitive Approach, the learner is seen as an active participant in the learning process, using various mental strategies in order to sort out the system of the language to be taught. ?Suitable for adult language learners ?Enjoyable and meaningful learning ?More effective learning by drawing on students’ experience Language is seen as an intellectual learning problem and it’s learning is a mental process. In practice the Cognitive Approach involves more active use of the students’ mental power, which is especially suitable for adult language learners. The students are learning meaningfully, and learning this way is more enjoyable because foreign language learners are not merely a mechanical language learning device. They have thoughts, cultural background, feeling experience, and so on. Meaningful learning draws on the student’s experience, which will make learning more effective. ?Integrating all four skills ?Giving students’ opportunity to develop functional and performance skills The Cognitive Approach utilizes all four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing from the beginning of the language course. This agrees more with the nature of real communication, in which people seldom use one skill. What’s more, by resorting to all the possible means of learning, language learning can be more effective than by drawing on one or two skills. It must give students opportunities to develop functional performance skills. ?Drawing on the latest development of linguistics and psychology and FLT theories. ?More scientific The greatest contribution of the Cognitive Approach is that it draws on the latest development of linguistics and psychology and studies foreign language teaching from the point of view of educational psychology, linguistic psychology and foreign language learning theories, hence makes itself more scientific. Definition---is an approach to foreign language teaching which is based on the belief that language learning is a process which involves active method processes and not simply the forming of habits. It lays emphasis on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system. Disadvantages---?Difficult to select and prepare meaningful presentations ?Depending too much on analysis and understanding ?No complete and systematic practical activities and procedures ?Needing further research and development Aiming at meaningful learning, teachers find it difficult to select and prepare meaningful presentations. And students who are slow to comprehend do not work successfully with the method because learning depends a lot on analysis and understanding. Another weak point is there are not yet complete and systematic practical activities and procedures for classroom use. And the rationale behind the method is still at its developmental stage. The method as a system is still not very complete and needs further research and development. Main features--- a. Knowledge of language rules facilitates learning. b. Rules are taught deductively. c. Competence comes before performance. It is believed the knowledge of language rules from the learner’s language foundation. By using the language rules as a base we can select the vocabulary to mean the things we want. The Cognitive Approach holds that knowledge of language rules facilitates learning. Language rules are taught deductively. Learners must learn the rules of the language before applying them. Competence comes before performance. The learning of grammar should be conducted in a functional way so that learners may apply what they have learnt to actual communicative situation. d. The learner is the center of classroom teaching. e. Language practice is the main form of classroom teaching. The Cognitive Approach believes that learners play a decisive role in foreign language learning. To achieve the teaching objectives, the teachers must understand the psychology of the learner. Since the learner is the center of language teaching, language practice should be the main form of learning. Opportunities should be provided so that learners can develop the ability of using the language through active participation in language communication. f. Learning is based on understanding. The Cognitive Approach insists that learning is based on understanding. Language learning is a creative process. The students can only perform after they have understood the system of the language. We can’t imitate without activating a cognitive pr ocess. In a Cognitive Approach classroom, meaningful learning and meaningful practice are emphasized during the entire learning process. g. The Cognitive Approach utilizes all four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing from the beginning of the language course. This agrees more with the nature of real communication, in which people seldom use one skill. In real life, communication is carried through all the possible channels: listening involves speaking, reading might involve writing. When a foreign language learner can resort to all the possible target language resources, learning will be more effective. h. Mistakes are unavoidable. The Cognitive Approach holds that mistakes are unavoidable in the creative use of language. Students’ mistakes a re a necessary and natural phenomenon, and a feature of the language as he progresses in the second language. Semi grammatical sentences should be accepted as a normal stage towards native-like competence. Objectives---a. to develop in the students the native-like competence b. to develop intuitive thinking in learners c. to develop strategies of language use d. to enable the students to learn from errors The goal of the Cognitive Approach is to develop the students the same type of abilities possessed by native speakers. The students should reach the point at which they can formulate their own replies to previously unmet language situations. It is important to encourage intuitive thinking in learners. Therefore, teachers need to seek a balance between, on the one hand, teaching aspects of the target language and skills in the language, and on the other hand, developing the learner’s ability to analyze the language, to make guesses as to how rules operate, to take risks in trying out the language, and to learn from their errors. Procedures---?Introducing and explaining new material The first step in the classroom is to present all new sounds, vocabulary, and structures in a manner meaningful to each student. The purpose of this introductory part is to develop students’ comprehension of the lan guage and prepare the students for the next two procedures. ?Consolidating the understanding of the new material(i.e. Exercise) Exercises are designed to consolidate the understanding of the new material, to help the students learn to manipulate and to remember these forms, thus completing the understanding process, and building up language competence. Exercises can be done by the student on his own and checked on his own. ?Application Activities This is the performance stage. The teacher assigns reading or listening comprehension passages for the students to study, so that they may see the learned forms used in context. Such activities are more like guided practice in thinking in the language than mere repetitive drill. Techniques--- a. Rule learning: ①conscious teaching of grammar ②paraphrasing ③explanation b. Meaningful practice: ①cognitive exercises: ·discrimination of sounds, intonation, words, sentences, etc. ·physical responses ·definition ·multiple-choice exercises·true/false exercises ·reciting ②application exercises: ·comprehension questions ·personalized question·describing pictures ·interviewing ·demonstrating ·explaining ·sentence combination ·sentence expansion ·questions and answers ·retelling c. creativity: ①conversation ②discussion ③impromptu chain questions and answers ④relating a story ⑤oral composition ⑥making a speech ⑦rewritting ⑧composition ⑨role-play ⑩translation Theory of language---a. The creative property of language Language is characterized by rule-governed creativity. This is based on two concepts derived from Chomsky-language is rule-governed and creative. Every normal human being has, somewhere in his brain, a set of grammar rules with which he can use to create an infinite number of sentences. b. Language as rule-governed Language is an intricate rule-governed system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. The Cognitive Approach lays emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception and learning. Student should be allowed to create their own sentences based on an understanding of grammar rules. c. Linguistic competence and linguistic penformance Chomsky created two linguistic terms ―language competence(linguistic performance)‖. The former refers to knowledge of grammar rules, while the later refers to application of language. It is competence that a child gradually acquires, and it is this language competence that allows the child to be creative as a language user. The learning of a language skill can be deliberate; it becomes automatic through use. Meaningful performance (practice) rather than drill is the only way to master a language. d. The innate hypothesis The innate hypothesis that human knowledge develops from structures, processes, and ideas which are in the minds at birth has been used to explain how children are able to learn a language. Chomsky and others claimed that every normal human being was born with a LAD(language acquisition device). Theory of learning--- a. Chomsky’s ideas about language acquisition Chomsky believes tha t: children are born with special language learning abilities; they do not have to be taught language or correct for their mistakes, but learn language by being exposed to it; and linguistic rules develop unconsciouly. This process of acquiring the rules o f one’s mother tongue by being exposed to examples of the language, and by using the language for communication is called language acquisition. b. Theory of cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology deals with the study of the nature and learning of systems of knowledge, particularly those processes involved in thought, perception, comprehension, memory and learning. In recent years cognitive psychology has been related to language structure to the nature of human cognitive processes. In other words, learning must involve organization of material. Learning should be structured. Structure has given meaning to parts previously incomprehensible. Since meaning is understood not as a behavioural response, learning a language should be meaningful learning. c. Piag et’s theory of cognitive development In the early 1960s,the famous Swiss psychologist Piaget established his theory of cognitive development. Piaget considers that conceptual growth occurs because the child, while actively attempting to adapt to the environment, organizes actions into schemata through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. d. Schema theory The schema theory is an important element in Piaget’s theory. The expression was coined to de scribe" an active organization of past action.‖ It refers to the mental framework of past experience, those things a person stores in his long-term memory. When a child is able to represent the world mentally, by means of memory, imagery or symbolic language, it is said to have internalized those experiences. This theory is one with is ―action-based‖, more concerned with the process of learning than what is learnt. e. Brunner and his discovery method The famous American psychologist Bunner emphasizes active restructuring of knowledge through experience with the environment. He holds that learners should organize knowledge for themselves by using discovery method, rather than having materials prepackaged by the teacher.Hebelieves learning is most effectively achieved when learners are encouraged to engage in guided discovery. Te discovery method takes a broad view of the education of the whole person, and it is one of the central elements of this the need to learn how to learn. F. Ausubel’s the ory The cognitive theory of learning as put forward by Ausubel emp hasizes the role of expository or reception learning. At the heart ofAusubel’s theory are the concepts of ―meaningful verbal learning and advance organizers‖. To be meaningful, new materials must be related to existing knowledge. T he teacher therefore has to find ways of associating the new materials with ideas or objects with which the learners are familiar. To help in this process, Ausubel recommends the use of advance organizers, by which he means some kinds of topical introduction to a lesson that orientates learners to the subject matter and relates new learning to what learners already know. The main function of advance organizers is to act as a bridge between what learners already know and what they need to know. g. Kelly’s theory Kelly made a clear d istinction between meaningful and meaningless learning activities. Language is not learned by the mere memorization. Rather, learners are involved in active process of making sense, of creating their own understanding of the world of language. In Kelly’s s ense, a meaningful activity is one that encourages this process of making sense, of fitting or mapping the new onto the old to create a new understanding. H. Diller’s four principles Diller formulates the four principles of cognitivism are as follows: ①A living language is characterized by rule-governed creativity. This principle implies the teaching of a language as a consciously learnt system. ②The rules of grammar are psychologically real. The learning of a skill can be deliberate; it becomes automatic through use. ③Man is a specially equipped to learn Language. Learning language is a human characteristic. Language learning can occur at any time in life in a situation of meaningful use. ④A living language is a language in which we can think. Language is bound up with meaning and thinking. Learning a language involves learning to think in that language. Meaningful practice rather than drill is the only way this can come about. --How do you understand the four principles of cognitivism formulated by Diller?----Diller’s first principle that a living language is characterized by rule-governed creativity implies the teaching of a language as a consciously learnt system. The second principle is that the rules of grammar are psychologically real. The rules of a new language are best learnt in conjunction with demonstration and practice. From the two principles above we must insist that the learner is the center of language teaching. The third is that man is especially equipped to learn language and learning language is a human characteristic. From this principle we can draw a conclusion that language learning occurs at any time in life in a situation of meaningful use. We should take a broad view of education of the whole person (lifelong education). The last principle is that a living language is a language in which we can think and it is bound up with meaning and thinking. We should emphasize language understanding, meaningful learning and meaningful practice during the entire learning process. --How useful are the techniques used by a cognitive teacher to your English teaching and learning experience?-----The rule learning, meaningful practice and creativity are the focus of English teaching and learning experience. Using these techniques is to help the learner to understand English as a system, and to master the meaningful material, then to achieve successful communication. These techniques used by a cognitive teacher can stimulate learners subjective activity and creativity, and raise their language competence and language performance. By using these techniques, the teacher can achieve the objectives of English teaching and learning experience: to develop in the students the native-like competence; to develop intuitive thinking in learners; to develop strategies of language use; to enable the students to learn from errors. ---What implications for FLT do you see in Chomsky’s work?---- Chomsky held that a language learner has, somewhere in his brain, a set of grammar rules with which he can use to make sentences. That is, language is characterized by rule-governed creativity. He claimed that every normal human being is born with a LAD (language acquisition device). The LAD included basic knowledge about the nature and structure of human language. Chomsky’s idea th at students should be allowed to create their own sentence based on an understanding of a rule is widely used in many classroom. Chomsky created two linguistic terms: language competence(knowledge of grammar rules ) and language performance(application of language). It is competence that a learner gradually acquires, and it is this language competence that allows the learned to be creative as a language user. Meaningful performance rather than drill is the only way to master a language. --Why is the Cognit ive Approach interpreted as the ―modern version of Grammar-Translation Method‖?---- The Cognitive Approach interpreted as the ―modern version of Grammar-Translation Method‖ because it has rediscovered valuable features in Grammar-Translation Method. The Cognitive Approach comes from the Grammar-Translation Method but it is not a mechanical repetition of the latter, and has given up a one-sided and radical approach in the Grammar-Translation Method. It has some main features; language is intricate rule-governed system; knowledge of language rules facilitates learning; learning is based on understanding; etc. It draws on the latest development of linguistics and psychology and studies foreign language teaching from the point of view of educational psychology, linguistic psychology and foreign language learning theories, hence makes itself more scientific. The American psychologist Carrol interpreted the Cognitive Approach as a ―modified, up-to-date grammar translation theory‖ 第七章自然法Natural Approach: background--- The Natural Approach was proposed in 1977 by Tracy Terrell, a teacher of Spanish at the University of California. Later, Terrell joined force with Stephen Krashen, an applied linguist at the University of Southern Ca lifornia. Drawing on Krashen’s influential theory of second Language Acquisition, they tried to provide a detailed theoretical rationale for the Natural Approach. In 1983, their joint effort came out in a book The Natural Approach :Language Acquisition in the classroom, which states the principles and practices of the Natural Approach. This new philosophy of language teaching was an attempt to develop a language teaching proposal that incorporated the ―naturalistic‖ p rinciples in the studies of second language acquisition. The Natural Approach emphasizes the central role of comprehension and believes that:①Comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a language ②The teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established ③Skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills ④Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form⑤Teaching should minimize learns’ stress Main features--- ?Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages. The Natural Approach considers input as the most important element of any language teaching programme. Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages, not when it is explicitly taught for conscious learning. ?Implications for classroom practice: ①whatever helps comprehension is important. ②V ocabulary is important. With more vocabulary there will be more comprehension and with more comprehension, there will be more acquisition. ③Students must understand the message. ④Classroom with interesting input may be a very good place for second language acquisition. ?Guidelines for classroom practice: ①The goal of the Natural Approach is communication skills.②Comprehension precedes production.③Production emerges.④Acquisition activities are essential.⑤Lower the affective filter. ?Characteristics of classroom teaching:①Class time is devoted primarily to providing input for acquisition. ②The teacher speaks only the target language in the classroom. Students may use either the first or second language. If they choose to respond in the second language, their errors should not be corrected in the process of communication.③Homework may include grammar work and errors should be corrected.④The goals are to enable students to talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve problems. ?The role of learner: The language learners are considered as processors of comprehensible input. They can decide when to speak, What to speak about, and what linguistic expressions to use in speaking. Their roles change according to their stage of linguistic development. (6)The role of a teacher: The natural Approach teacher has three central roles. She is first the primary source of comprehensible input in the target language. Her second role is to create a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly, and in which there is a low affective filter for learning. Finally, the teacher must choose and use a rich mix of classroom activities, involving a variety of group sizes content, and contexts. (7)The role of testing: is to motivate students to prepare for tests by obtaining more comprehensible input and to motivate teachers to supply more comprehensible input. Objectives---The Natural Approach is primarily designed to develop basic communication skills---both oral and written---and is designed to help beginners become intermediates. The students are expected to be able to function adequately in the target situation. They should be able to make the meaning clear. The goals of a Natural Approach class are divided according to basic personal communication skills and academic learning skills, with focus on the former. Communication goals are specified in terms of situations, functions and topics. Procedures---?Pre-production stage: At this stage, the teacher provides comprehensible input, maintains focus on the message and helps lower affective filters. This pre-production stage allows the students an opportunity to begin the acquisition process. ?production stage: The Natural Approach uses three stages as a basis for beginners; all involve personalization and the use of family topics and situations. The first stage is aimed primary at lowing the affective filter by putting the students into situations in which they can get to know each other personally. The students learn how to describe themselves, their family, and their friends in the targe language. The second stage consists of giving the students comprehensible input about experiences and allowing for opportunities to engage in conversations about their own experiences. The third stage consists of input and discussions, concerning opinions. Students discuss political issues, civil rights, family, and so forth, and gain the competence to express their own views. Techniques--- ?Acquisition activities: ①Affective-humanistic activities attempt to inv olve students’ feelings, opinions, desires, reactions, ideas, and experiences. Open dialogues, interviews, reference ranking, personal charts, supplying personal information, description, etc. are often used to involve students in communicating information about themselves. ②Problem-solving activities are those in which the students’ attention is focused on finding a correct answer to a question, a problem or a situation. ③Games are the third group of activities. The primary focus of any particular game is on words, discussion, action, contest, problem-solving, and guess. ④Content activities are the ones whose purpose is for the students to learn something new other than language. They include slide shows, panel, individual reports and presentations, ―show and tell‖ activities, music, films, film scripts, TV reports, news broadcasts, guest lectures, native speaker visitors reading and discussions about any sort of the target language and culture. ?Typical techniques: In the early stages of speech production, the Natural Approach uses random volunteered group responses, which place little demand on the individual student but allow early use of the target language. As for errors, if students’ respons e is wrong in meaning, the teacher will correct them immediately. But if the response is appropriate, but ill-formed or pronounced incorrectly, the teacher will first give a positive response, then use reformations and expansions, just as in real-life situations. The particularly good technique is the one that consists of giving commands to students and having them actually act out what the teacher says. The Natural Approach also provides appropriate texts and reasons for reading. Natural Approach: Theory of language---a. Communication as the primary function of language; and emphasis on meaning Krashen and Terrell see communication as the primary function of language and since their approach focuses on teaching communicative abilities, they identify the Natural Approach with the Communicative Approach. What Krashen and Terell emphasize in their approach is the primacy of meaning. b. Importance of vocabulary Krashen and Terrell stress the importance of vocabulary, suggesting that a language is essentially its lexicon. c. Not necessary to analyze grammatical structure; and rules automatically provided in the input. Krashen and Terrell hold that grammatical structure does not require explicit analysis or attention by the teacher, by the learner, or in language teaching materials. They assume that if we provide input over a wide variety of topics while pursuiting communicative goal, the necessary grammatical rules are automatically provede in the input. Theory of learning---a. Krashen’s Monitor Model of second language development The Monitor Model is the center of Krashen’s second language l earning theory. Krashen argues that his account provides a general or ―overall theory‖ of second language acquisition with im portant implications for language teaching. b. Two distinct processes: acquisition and learning Krashen’s Monitor Model of second l anguage development distinguishes two distinct processes in second and foreign language development and use. One is called ―acquisition‖, which refers to the subco nscious process leading to the development of ―competence‖ and is not dependent on the teaching of grammatical rules. The second process called ―learning‖, refers to the conscious study and knowledge of grammatical rules. In producing utterances, learners initially use their acquired system of rules. Learning and learned rules have only one functi on: to serve as a monitor or editor utterances initiated by the acquired system. c. The five hypothesis of Krashen’s Monitor Model ①The acquisition-learning hypothesis Krashen maintains that second language learners have at their disposal two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in a second language. One is acquisition. The other is learning. Acquisition comes about through meaningful interaction in a natural communication setting. This contrasts with the language learning situation in which students try not to make mistakes and their teacher corrects them once they are found. Learning, according to the theory, cannot lead to acquisition. ②The Monitor hypothesis The monitor hypothesis states that learning has only one function, and that is as a monitor. It uses conscious grammatical knowledge to determine the form of produced utterances. The monitor (knowledge of grammar rules) is thought to play a minor role in second language learning process. ③The natural order hypothesis The natural order hypothesis states that we acquire the rules of language in a predictable order, some rules tending to come early and other late. The order does not appear to be determined solely by formal simplicity and there is evidence that it is independent of the order in which rules are taught in language classes. ④The input hypothesis The input hypothesis assumes that human acquire language in only one way---by un derstanding messages, or by receiving ―comprehensible input‖ which refers to utterances that the learner understands based on the context in which they are used as well as the language in which they are phrased. In language acquisition, we move from i, our current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1. This hypothesis involves four main issues: First, the input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to meaning. Second, people acquire language best by understanding input i+1. Comprehension is helped by the situation and the context, extra-linguistic information and knowledge of the world. Third, the ability to speak fluently can not be taught, it ―emerges‖ independently in time, after the acquirer has bui lt up language competence by understanding input. Forth, enough comprehension input provides i+1 automatically. ⑤The affective filter hypothesis Krashen argues that attitudinal factors also play an important role in acquiring a second language. Krashen sees the learner’s emotional state or attitude as an adjustable filter that freely passes or blocks input n ecessary to acquisition. Krashen identifies three kinds of affective variables related to second language acquisition : motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. For Krashen, the affective filter is the principle source of individual differences in second language acquisition. Definition--- The Natural Approach emphasizes natural communication rather than formal grammar study and is tolerance of learners’ errors. The core of the Natural Approach is language acquisition which is considered a subconscious process, dependent on two factors: the amount of comprehensible input the students get and the amount of input the students ―allow in‖. Advantages-?The classroom consisting of acquisition activities can be an excellent environment for beginners. The Natural Approach is an attempt to simulate in the classroom an environment that will be similar to the context in which children acquire their first language, as they create utterances to express their own thoughts. ?Comprehensible and meaningful practice activities are emphasized. In the Natural Approach, a focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as well as the provision of right kinds of comprehensible input provide the necessary and sufficient conditions for successful classroom second and foreign language acquisition. It emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterance and sentences. Listening comprehension is also emphasized. ?The teacher creates speeches which enable students to interact using the target language. ?Students are not forced to respond in the target language immediately. ?Students interact in meaningful situation at their own level. The Natural Approach classroom contains a teacher whose main purpose is to create a net of speech which will enable students to begin interacting using the target language and to begin the language acquisition process. The teacher can provide a large amount of language input without forcing the students to respond in the target language immediately. In the classroom, students also have the advantage of being able to interact in meaningful situations with other students at or near their own level of competence. ?The teacher knows students’ needs and concentrates on appropriate and useful areas. Another important feature of the classroom is that th e teacher is aware of the specific vocabulary needs of the students and can concentrate on appropriate and using domains. Thus the conclusion is that while the real world can provide excellent input for intermediate or advanced acquires, the classroom consisting of acquisition activities can be an excellent environment for beginners. Disadvantages---?The Natural Approach ignores many factors essential in second language course design. ?It simply borrows techniques from other methods. ?There is nothing novel about its procedures and techniques. ?There are still many problems in the research method. Krashen in his early work appeared not just to ignore but to view as irrelevant many factors that had previously been considered essential in second language course design. The techniques recommended by krashen and Terrell are often borrowed from other methods and adapted to meet the requirements of the Natural Approach theory. There is nothing novel about the procedures and techniques within framework of a method. -- What are the basic assumptions of Krashen’s Monitor Model? Krashen’s Monitor Model is the center of his second lan guage learning theory. The Monitor Model consists of five basic hypothesis: ①The acquisition-learning hypothesis Krashen maintains that second language learners have at their disposal two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in a second language. One is acquisition. The other is learning. ②The Monitor hypothesis It states that learning has only one function, and that is as a monitor. The focus of language teaching should not be rule-learning but communication. ③The natural order hypothesis The learners would always acquire the rules in a certain order, no matter which rules are taught first, and which are taught later. ④The input hypothesis It assumes that human acquire language in only one way---by understanding messages, or by receiving ―comprehensible input‖. ⑤The affective filter hypothesis It states that acquires with a low affective filter, i.e. with high motivation, self-confidence low anxiety level, seek and receive more language input. --Do you think that is necessary to dram a distinction between acquisition and learning? Why? Yes. The basic principle of Natural Approach is the distinction between language acquisition and language learning. ―language acquisition‖ refers to the subconscious process lea ding to the development of ―competence‖ and is not dependent on the teaching of grammatical rules. ―language learning‖ refers to the conscious study and know ledge of grammatical rules. Acquisition takes place during real communication in the language and is considered to be the source of the students’ ability to use the language. Learning may contribute to the self-monitoring, or self-editing, of language output that sometimes occurs when speakers have time to reflect and focus on the form of their utterances. Krashen believes that acquiring a language is more successful and longer lasting than learning. This distinction between acquisition and learning provides a basic principles of second language acquisition with important implication for language teaching. ---Do you think that, in second language acquisition process, acquisition will continue to happen for adults? Why? Yes. Acquisition takes place real communication in the language and is considered to be the source of the learners’ ability to use the language in unstructured interaction. Teachers can entirely simulate in the classroom an environment that will be similar to the context in which adults acquire their first language, as they create utterances to express their own thoughts. Teachers can also create a variety of major activities in the classroom which leads to produce active interactions in the second language. Through these major activities and techniques, the innate capacities to acquire a language that all adults possess will be tapped. Classroom with interesting and meaningful language input may be a very good place for adults to acquire the second language. We consider that acquisition will continue to happen for adults in second language acquisition process. --How could you take the ―best ‖ of Krashen’s theories and appl y them in the classroom and yet still be mindful of the various problems inherent in his idea about second language acquisition? Krashen’s Monitor Model has important implications for foreign language teaching and foreign language teachers. ?Krashen’s dist inction between acquisition and learning makes people realize that it is very important to create in a foreign language classroom the kind of natural environment so that learners can resort to their subconscious learning. Using these two processes together, learning would be more successful. ?The monitor hypothesis states that the limited role grammar plays in second language learning. The focus on language teaching should not be rule-learning but communication, so we should put the focus of classroom teaching on the communication of meaning, not on rule-learning. ?The natural order hypothesis states that it is not always a good idea to start with a rule by considering only whether it is simple in terms of structure. Some rules are simple in structure, but difficult in use, or less often used i n real communication. To take learners’ communication in the target language easier, it might be better to teach those more often used rules before the less often used rules. ?The input hypothesis is that people acquire language best by understanding input i+1. The input should be interesting and challenging enough to keep learners motivated and they can feel a sense of achievement. If it is too easy, learners will not learn anything at all, and if it is too difficult, learners will be demotivated and comprehension will be a problem. With no comprehension, there will be no learning. The focus of language input should be on meaning, and meaning should be presented in context. ?The affective filter hypothesis reminds language teachers of the fact that learning is not purely an intellectual and cognitive process, it is also an effective process. If learners have a positive attitude, enough confidence, interest and motivation in learning a foreign language, learning would be more effective. As foreign language teachers, they should always try to lower t he students’ anxiety level, build up their confidence, keep their interest, and create a relaxing environment and provide the most meaningful and comprehensible input so that both acquisition and learning happen, and ―the best successful learners‖ will be produced. -Review the tenets of Krashen’s Input Hypothesis. Which one is most plausible? Least plausible? Justify your answer. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis assumes that humans acquire language in only one way—by understanding messages, or by receiving ―comprehensible input‖, which refers to utterance that the learner understands based on the context in which they are used as well as the language in which they are phrased. In language acquisition, we move from i, our current level, to i +1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1. The input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to meaning. Comprehension is helped by the situation and the context , extra-linguistic information and knowledge of the world. After the acquirer has built up linguistic competence by understanding input, the ability to speak fluently will emerge independently in time. It cannot be taught directly. Enough comprehension input provides i+1 automatically. The most plausible point is that people acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence. This point accords with the learning cognitive development of learners. Comprehension is helped by the situation and context, extra-linguistic information and knowledge of the world. According to the point of Krashen’s Input Hypothesis we can learn the target language faster and better. Th e least plausible point is that humans acquire language in only one way—by receiving comprehensible input. Such a position ignores the advanced cognitive development of adults and the advantages of formal teaching and learning. Krashen argues that the best way to learn a second language is to approach the language as children do when they are acquiring their first language. In fact, adult learners have cognitive skills that enable them to take advantages of formal interaction. There are many successful foreign language learners who learn their target language in a purely foreign language environment. 第八章:交际法Communicative Approach: background--- Towards the end of the 1960s there went on a growing dissatisfaction among foreign language teachers and applied linguists with the dominating language teaching method of the time. First, the criticism was that this kind of teaching produced structurally competent students who were often communicatively incompetent. Another reason for this dissatisfaction was undoubtedly the fact that, by the late 1960s, there were increasing possibilities for international communication, professional cooperation and travel. Meanwhile, some theoretical linguists had become conscious of the fact that in linguistic research meaning and context were neglected. They began to consider semantics to be basic to any theoretical model of language. Meaning was seen to depend to a large degree on the sociocultural contexts in which speech acts occurred. All this was reflected in some proposals to reconstruct the language syllabus so that learning communicative conventions would become as important as learning grammatical conventions. D.A. Wilkins was instrumental in setting out the fundamental considerations for ―functional-notional‖ approach to syllabus design based on communicative criteria. The distinguishing characteristics of the Notional-Functional syllabus(NFS) were its attention to functions as the organizing elements of English language curriculum, and its focus on the pragmatic purpose to which we put language. Wilk ins’ s book Notional Syllabuses had a significant impact on the development of Communicative Language Teaching. The NFS did not necessarily develop communicative competence in learners. However, by attending to the functional purpose of language, and by providing contextual(notional) settings for the realization of those purpose, it provided a link between a dynasty of methods that was now perishing and a new era of language teaching—Communicative Approach teaching. The Communicative Approach is essentially a manifestation of the 1970s, in the sense that this was the decade when the most explicit debate took place. The subsequent period has been characterized by explorations of other, related possibilities for the design of materials and methods. More importantly, teachers in many parts of the world are finding that the need to come to terms with changes in their role, as communicative principles in language teaching become central goals of their educational systems. Main features--- ?Five points to characterize the Communicative Approach: ①Emphasis on learning to communicate in the target language ②The introduction of authentic texts into learning situations ③Focus not only on language but also on the learning process itself ④making use of learner’s own personal experiences ⑤Creating real communication situations in the classroom; linking classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom The most obvious characteristics of the Communicative Approach is that almost everything that is done with a communicative intent. The teacher is concerned with the learners themselves, their feelings and ideas. The classroom activities are learner-centered because learning is more effective when the learners are actively involved in the learning process. ?The role of the teacher: ①a facilitator of students’ learning ②a manager of classroom activities ③an advisor of students’ questions ④a co-communicator in the communicative activity In a communicative classroom, the teacher is a facilitator of her students’ learning. As such, she has many roles to fulfill. She is a manger of classroom activities. During the activities , she acts as an advisor, answering students’ questions and monitoring their performance. A t other times she might be a ―co- communicator‖—engaging in the communicative activity along with the students. ?The role of the learner: ①a negotiator ②a communicator ③a contributor ④an independent learner The learner’s role is that of a negotiator between the self, the role of joint-negotiator with the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which group undertakes. Learners are , above all, communicators. They are actively engaged in negotiating meaning—in trying to make themselves understood—even when their knowledge of the target language is incomplete. They learn to communicate by communicating. Students are seen as more responsible contributors or mangers of their own learning, and they are independent learners. ?Features of communicative activities: ①information gap ②choice of form and content ③feedback of any communicative information ?Classroom environment: ①cooperation and empathy ②learner-centered ③tolerance of errors ④working in small groups Objectives--- T he general aim of the Communicative Approach is to develop the students’ communicative competence. It includes: ?Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of the language ?Knowledge of rules of speaking ?Knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts, such as requests, apologies, thanks and invitations ?Knowing how to use language appropriately The objectives of a course of language instruction cannot be defined until the learners’ needs have been identified. Therefore, objectives can vary greatly due to the variety of learners’ purposes of learning the language, materials available and so on. Procedures---?Presentation and comprehension (Students listen, then answer questions. ) ?Demonstration of functional patterns (The teacher exemplifies each functional patterns) ?Practising functional patterns (Students practise the dialogue in pares) ?Free production (Students make minidialogue of their own) ?Creative production (Students work in groups) ?Checking students’ work ?Reading new materials (integrating reading and writting) ?Writing based on reading Techniques--- ?Ways of integrating language skills:①developing listening and note-taking skills using audio-video materials ②giving oral presentations ③project work ④role-play and simulation ?Ways of developing separated skills: ①Listening: putting pictures in correct sequence following directions on a map checking off items in a photograph completing a grid, time table or chart ②Speaking: games problem solving activities simulation/role-play personal responses ③Reading: skimming scanning text unscrambling information transfer ④Writing(mainly done in three steps): gathering ideas working on drafts preparing the final version Theory of language---?Language is for communication. The Communicative Approach is language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication. When we communicate, we use the language to accomplish some functions, such as arguing, persuading, or promising. ?Language is used in topics, context and setting. The Communicative Approach has a theory of language rooted in the functional school. Functional linguistics is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation. In addition to talking about language function and language form, there are other dimensions of communication to be considered if we are be offered a more complete picture. They are, at least, topics, content and setting; and roles of people involved. So, we carry out the communicative functions within a social context. ?The relationship between form and meaning is not a one-to-one correspondence. Whereas the sentence structure is stable and straightforward, its communicative function is variable and depends on specific situational and social factors. The relationship between the grammatical forms and their communicative functions is not a one-to-one correspondence. In a communicative perspective, this relationship is explored more carefully, and as a result our views on the properties of language have expanded and enriched. ?Discourse analysis studies language above sentence level. Discourse analysis studies how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews. These reflect how language is used in real communication and what rules of use must be observed. Therefore, discourse analysis becomes an indispensable part of Communicative Language Teaching. ?Pragmatics studies how language is used in communication. Closely related to Communicative Language teaching(CLT) is pragmatics, the study of the use of language in communication. Pragmatics is particularly interested in the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. It includes the study of how the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the world, how speakers use and understand speech acts, and how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer. ?Hymes and his notion of communicative competence In talking about CLT, one cannot avoid talking about ―communicative competence‖, a term coined by Hymes(1972) in order to contrast a communicative view of language with Chomsky’s(1965) theory of competence.In Hymes’s view, ―communicative competence‖ refers to the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom. ?Halliday and his functional account of language use According to Halliday, a British linguist, social context of language use can be analyzed in terms of three factors: the field of discourse, the tenor of discourse and the mode of discourse. ?Widdowson and his view of forms and their communicative values Widdowson(1978) held a view of the relationship between linguistic systems and their communicative values in text and discourse. He focused on the communicative acts underlying the ability to use language for different purposes. His distinction between appropriacy and accuracy, communicative competence and grammatical competence, use and usage threw much light on CLT. ?Canale and Swain’s examination of communicative competence According to Canale and Swain, communicative competence entails four dimensions. They are grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. ?Richa rds and Rodgers’ summary of the communicative view of language ①Language is a system for the expression of meaning. ②The primary function of language is for interaction and communication. ③The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses. ④The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse. Theory of learning---?Communicative Language Teaching should follow the natural acquisition process. The Communicative Approach attempts to follow the natural acquisition process in the classroom. According to Krashen, language learning comes about through using target language communicatively. Some contemporary researchers and language educators believe that fully successful language acquisition is a by-product of communication, of negotiating meaning, so that the traditional attitude to language learning and teaching has to be completely reversed. Traditional attitude can be described as the belief that we learn and teach language in order to be able to communicate, While the new approach assumes that in order to learn a language we have to try to communicate in it. ?Language is best learned through use in social context. Most contributors to the Communicative Approach share the view that language is used for communication and are more concerned with meaning than with structure. They tend to argue that language is best learned through use in social context. John Firth, a linguist, stressed that language needs to be studied in the broader sociocultural context of its use, which includes participants, their behaviour and beliefs, the objects of linguistic discussion, and word choice. ?Effective language learning will take place if the emphasis is on communication. Yalden thinks that more effective foreign language learning will take place if the emphasis is on getting one’s meaning across or understanding the speaker rather than to for mal accuracy. Obviously, Yalden is more concerned with getting meaning across in a given context. ?Language learning is a process of meaning negotiation. Candlin believes that communicative language learning is ―a highly socialized activities where learner s are engaged in a negotiative process, with themselves in terms of what they already know, with others in terms of sharing and refining knowledge and with the curriculum content in terms of wh at has to be learned,‖ For Candlin, the meaning negotiation involves in making choices and decisions lies at the heart of the language learning process. Advantages-?Wider considerations of what is appropriate and what is accurate ?Wider range of language ?Realistic and motivating language practice ?Drawing on learners’ knowledge and experience The Communicative Approach is now accepted by many applied linguists and c lassroom teachers as the most effective approach among those in general use. There are a number of reasons why the Communicative Approach is so attractive. Apart from providing a richer teaching and learning environment, it can first include wider considerations of what is appropriate as well as what is accurate; second it can handle a wider range of language. covering texts and conversations as well as sentences; third it can provide realistic and motivating language practice; and lastly it uses what learn ers ―know‖ about the functions of language from their experience with their own mother tongue. Definition---is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence. Teaching materials used with the Communicative approach often teach the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions. The approach follows a National syllabus and emphasizes the processes of communication to get information, and using language for social interaction with other people. Communicative Approach: Disadvantages-?Difficult to tailor syllabus to students’ needs ?Fossilization of learners’ errors ?Unclear about how rules of use can be taught The Communicative Approach emphasizes learner’ needs. But how to identify those needs quickly and cheaply, and to what extent all learners can be said to have a common need is still a matter of disagreement. It remains vague about the relative importance of accuracy and fluency. People seem also to realize the possible pedagogical risks connected with CLT. The most obvious risk is the fossilization of learners’ errors. And What’s more, CLT is unclear about how the rules of use. After all, classroom setting is different from real-life situations. -How do you interpret the idea of ―communicating in English‖ in your case, as a learner of English? For a learner of English who a n studying in a non-English-speaking setting. ―communicating in English‖ means to experience real communicative situations in which I learn to express my own ideas, views and attitudes, and in which I am taken seriously as people. Meaningful communicative activities on my English level will improve my language performance and generate my interest. ---Appropriacy of language use has to be considered alongside accuracy. What implications does this have for attitudes to errors? This has some implications for attitudes to errors. Since both appropriacy and accuracy are important in language use, we should pay the same attention to these two aspects. If one’s language production is appropriate, but dotted with a lot of grammar errors, communication would be affecte d. On the other hand, if one’s language production is correct in grammar, but not appropriate in use, e.g. the wrong address form, communication would not be as effective as expected either. Therefore, we should be tolerant to the students’ errors which do not affect communication, and be strict to those which interfere with communication and cause ill effect of ill feeling in other communicators. --Does it always matter if the ―real world‖ is not being practiced in the classroom? Why? The ideal language learning setting i s to practise language as it is used in the real world. Since learners will have to use the foreign language in real communication outside the classroom. However, it is not always possible to do so because classroom setting is after all different from the outside world no matter how hard we try to simulate the real-world situation. And it is not always necessary to do so. Language learning and language teaching are considered at several stages. At the drilling stage, when the focus is on language form, the real-world situation does not have to be practiced. But when the focus is on language communication and learners are engaged in communicative activities, The real-world situation does matter much. It is where learners learn to use the foreign language for real communication, and to use it appropriately and accurately. ---How do you understand the relationship between the grammatical forms of a language and their communicative functions? The relationship between the grammatical forms of a language and their communicative functions is not a one-to-one correspondence. Whereas the sentence structure is stable and straightforward, its communicative function is variable and depends on specific situational and social factors. The fact is that a single linguistic form can express a number of functions, so also can a single communicative function be expressed by a number of linguistic forms. In a communicative perspective, this relationship is explored more carefully, and as a result our views on the properties of language have been expanded and enriched. --How do you understand the statement ―form and function operate as part of a wider network of factors‖? The statement ―form and function operate as part of a wider network of factors‖ means when we communicate, we use the language to accomplish some functions, such as a rguing, personalizing, or promising. Moreover, we carry out these functions within a social context. A speaker will choose a particular way to express his thought not only based on his intent and level of emotion but also on whom he is addressing and what his relationship with that person is. For example, he may be more direct in arguing with his friend than with his employer. In other words, real world language in use does not operate in a vacuum. When we give advice, we do so to talking about language function and language form, there are other dimensions of communication to be considered if we are to be offered a more roles of people involved. So, the orientation of the teaching is essentially toward the purposes and social uses of communication, rather than the understanding of language form. --How do your mater ials handle the relationship between grammar and communicative function? For instance, is a ―function‖ taught together with several grammatical forms, or just one? Alternatively, is a ―function‖ just used as an example where the main focus is on tea ching grammar? Do this point according to what your teaching materials are used. You may refer to the key to No. 2 point above, and analyse the factors using a communicative perspective. -Is the Communicative Approach a useful one for all proficiency levels, particularly for beginners? Generally speaking, the Communicative Approach can be a useful teaching method for all proficiency levels. The Communicative Approach emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence. We can make use of whatever learning and teaching techniques which help the learners develop their communicative competence. On condition that we follow the basic principles of the Communicative Approach, such as information gap activities, meaning-based communication, authentic materials, our language learners would achieve the goal of mastering a foreign language. Even if with beginners, we can still use the approach. --What are the two categories of meaning of language proposed by Wilkins? What is the distinction between the two terms? The two categories of meaning of language proposed by Wilkins are ―notions ‖ and ―functions‖. ―Notions ‖are domains in which we use language to exp ress though and feeling. They are both general and specific. General notions are abstract concepts such as existence, space, time, Quantity and quality. Within the general notion of space and time, for example, are the concept of location, motion, dimension, speed and length of time and frequency. Specific notions correspond more closely to what we hav e become accustomed to calling ―context‖ or ―situations‖. Personal identification, for example, is a specific notion under which name, address, phone numbers, and other personal information is subsumed. ―functions‖ refer to th e purposes for which utterance or units of language are used. In language learning, language functions are often described as categories of behavior; e.g. requests, apologies, complaints, offers and compliments. 第九章外语教学法的一般趋势 some new flt approaches:国外一些新的外语教学法 1全身反应法Total Physical Response: Definition and advocate---The Total Physical Response method, put forward by James Asher in the 1970s, is a language teaching method which attempts to teach language through physical activities. It emphasizes comprehension and the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level. It sees successful adult second language learning as a process paralleled to child first language acquisition. Objectives---The general objectives of the Total Physical Response method are to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level. Comprehension is a means to an end, and the ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking skills. Imperative drills are major classroom activity in Total physical Response. Other class activities include rule-plays and slide presentation. The learners have little influence over the content of learning and are encouraged to speak when they feel ready to. The teacher plays an active and direct role in Total Physical Response. It is the teacher who decides what to teach, who models and presents the new materials, and who selects supporting materials for classroom use. Basic principles---Asher believes in the following principles: ①Comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a language. ②The teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established. ③Skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills. ④Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form. ⑤Teaching should minimize learner stress. 2沉默法Silent Way: Definition and advocate----It is an approach to language teaching developed in the United States, principally by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much as language as possible. The learning hypotheses underlying Gattegno’s work could be stated as follows: ①Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned. ②Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects. ③Learning is facilitated by problem-solving involving the materials to be learned. Silent Way: Basic principles---The Silent Way is based on the following principles: ①Successful learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness and then active trial. ②It takes a structural approach to the organization of language to be taught. ③Language is seen as strings of meaningful units by grammar rules, and is separated from its social context and taught through artificial situations. ④Lessons follow a sequence based on grammatical complexity and the sentence is the base unit of teaching. ⑤The teacher focuses on prepositional meaning, rather than communicative value. ⑥Students are presented with the structural patterns of the target language and learn the grammar through largely inductive processes. The general objective of the Silent Way is to give beginning level students oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language. An immediate objective is to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar. In a Silent Way classroom, learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility. The teacher does not explain language rules, nor correct students’ errors. She models what should be learned. This requires the students to develop ―inner criteria‖ t o correct themselves, to make generalizations, come to their own conclusions, and formulate whatever rules they themselves feel they need. 2集体学习法Community Language Learning: Definition and advocate---It is the name of a method developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. This method advises teachers to consider their students as ―whole persons‖, therefore Community Language Learning is sometimes cited as an example of a ―humanistic approach‖. Basic principles---①The more general counseling-learning approach states that adults often feel threatened by a new learning situation, that is , they are threatened by the change inherent in learning and by the fear that they will appear foolish. ②The teacher as a language counselor means the teacher can understand the students face as they attempt to learn a new language, and can help them overcome their negative feelings and turn them into positive energy to further their learning. ③Community Language Learning advocates a holistic approach to language learning, since ―true‖ human learning is both cognitive and affective. ④According to Curran, there are six elements necessary for non-defensive learning: security, attention, aggression, retention, reflection and discrimination. In practice, Community Language Learning is most often used in the teaching of oral proficiency. The course progression is topic based. Teachers want their students to learn how to use the target language communicatively. In addition, they want them to learn about their own learning, to take increasing responsibility for it. 4暗示法Suggestopaedia: Definition and advocate---It is a method developed by Bulgarian psychiatrist-educator George Lozanov, who believes that language learning can occur at a much faster rate than it is often expected if learners can make better use of their mental powers. In order to do that, The limitations we think we have need to be ―desuggested‖. Suggestopaedia, the application of the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been deve loped to help students eliminate the feeling that they can not be successful and thus to help them overcome the barriers to learning. Basic principles---①Language learning needs involving the whole person in the learning process: both the conscious and the unconscious self. ②For this to take place, a relaxing, co-operative atmosphere is necessary. A Suggestopaedia course is conducted in a classroom in which students are as comfortable as possible. In order to enhance their feeling of security and allow them to be more open, students are asked to select target language names and choose new occupations. The texts that the students work from are handout conta ining lengthy dialogues in the target language, with a translation in the students’ native language and some notes on the vocabulary and grammar in the dialogues. The first major phase is called ―the receptive phase‖ in which the teacher presents the dialogue during two concerts while the students relax and listen. What follows is the second major phase ―the activation phase‖ in which students engage in various activities designed to help them gain facility with the new materials. 四种方法的比较:Comparison of the four methods: What do these approaches share? Let’s first look at the Silent Way, Community Language Learning and Suggestopaedia. The three approaches all lay emphasis on the individual and on personal learning strategies. They all endeavor to involve the whole person of students. All view the learning of a second language as quite different from the learning of the first. All three are inductive in the initial stage of the language learning process. All three approaches advocate that there should be no cor rection of the learners’ errors and they should be given enough time to work on their own. They aim to reduce the anxiety and tension of language teaching. Each of these approaches encourages active use of the language in communicative situations from the beginning. Each if these approaches tries to create a community feeling. All of them start not with the language content but rather with a theory of learning. Each is the outcome and application of a particular theory of language learning and an accompanying body of instructional theory. All these indicate that the focus of research has been shifted from language teaching to language learning. 外语教学发展的一般趋势:Development in FLT: ?According to Stern The development of foreign language teaching in the past 100 years has not been identical everywhere. The entire time span can be roughly divided into four periods: ①The last decade of the 19th century It witnessed a determined effort in many countries of the Western world to bring modern foreign languages into the school and university curriculm on their own terms, to emancipate modern languages more and more from the comparison with the classics, and to reform the methods of language teaching in a decisive way. ②From World WarⅠto 1940 During the first World War and the inter-war years to 1940, the first serious attempts were made to solve language teaching problems by research methods. This period is characterized by attempts to resolve the debate on teaching methods of the preceding era through practical and realistic solutions. ③From the end of World WarⅡto 1960s Since the end of World WarⅡ, teachers have found themselves under considerable pressure to abandon the long-standing teacher-centred model. In Europe generally, changes that were occurring were based on functional theories of language. In the United States in particular people began to cast doubts on Leonard Bloomfield’s linguistic theory and B.F. Skinner’s views. By the m id-1960s, the upheaval in linguistics and psycholinguistics created by Chomsky’s transformational-generative grammar had began to affect language pedagogy. A fresh examination of the learning process and of how to provide for it commenced. The goals of language instruction in the 1960s has been on the oral medium, and meaning was deemphasized. But during the decade that followed teachers wanted once again to see more emphasis on meaning, and more flexibility in the use of teaching materials. ④The seventies of the 20th century The 1970s were characterized by the emergence of several new methods. There was a shift from a concern with teaching methods to one with language teaching objectives, language content and syllabus design. Another focus is on the learner as an individual and as a whole person. Krashen’s distinction between language acquisition and lan guage learning and his Monitor Model theory also aroused widespread interest. From the mid-1970s the key concept in educational linguistics and language pedagogy is that of communication or communicative competence have emerged in the idea of Communicative Language Teaching as a central focus for new thought and fresh approaches in language pedagogy in the early 1980s. According to Rivers(四个时期) In the grammar-translation period (before World War Ⅱin most foreign language teaching in many parts of the world ) the emphasis was on WHY we should teach a modern language. The focus of FLT was on the understanding of a formal grammatical system and the ability to read literature and philosophy. Then modern language teachers came to the WHA T and HOW of the audiolingual era, asking such questions as ―What is language?‖ and ―How do people learn languages?‖ The structuralists believed language was a system of ar bitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture and it was learned by acquiring language habits through reinforcement. The emphasis on WHAT and HOW continued during the transformational-generative period, when the cognitive code-learning approaches was much discussed. More recently has come emphasis on the individual as learner. Who are our language learners? How do individuals learn? What are their personal learning strategies? Second-language teachers began to seek ways in which students could be given opportunities, situations and time to learn. 外语教学法对中国英语教学的影响:Influence of FLTM on ELT in China: ?Method used in the late 19th century English teaching began in China in the 19th century when foreign missionaries came to China. The method of learning and teaching English then followed the patterned below: ①Recitation: Students recited the lesson taught the previous day. ②Questions and answers: Teacher asked questions in Chinese, Students answered in English. ③Writing practice: Students write from memory the lesson taught. ④Presentation: Teacher presented the new lesson; students listened and practice spoken English. ⑤Spelling practice: This was done after class. ⑥Sentence making: This began after half a year’s learning when students were expected to have learned some vocabulary. Student s practiced translating sentences and teacher corrected them. ?Method used in the 50s and 60s (三中心)After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, people came to realize the importance of a foreign language in the education of professionals and in the development of science and technology. A foreign language was considered one of the basic components of secondary education. But in the 1950s and 1960s Russian became the main foreign language taught. The Russian methodological principles were ―three-centered‖: classr oom-centered, teacher-centered and textbook-centered. According to these principles, in the classroom, the teachers were imparting knowledge, which the students passively took in. ?Method used in the 80s (新教材)After the setback in foreign language teaching during the ―Cultural Revolution‖, foreign language teaching began to flourish again. The release of the 1978 syllabus heralded a new age in China’s secondary English teaching. But a great deal of linguistic theory was not introduced into course book design. With the open door policy and establishment of some key schools, a new English course book was greatly needed. To meet this need, the People’s Education Press came up with a new syllabus in 1982, and a textbook series English. The approach recommended was neither a typical structural approach nor a conventional one. It was a composite format, which contained both audiolingualism and traditionalism. The methodological principles were: ①A foreign language is a tool and weapon, which should be taught for use. We should teach English rather than teach about it. In learning English, practice is the key. ②In teaching, priority should be given to listening and speaking. The writers of the textbook series insist that: ⅠListening and speaking should be the chief means of teaching in the beginning and intermediate stages; ⅡWords and sentences should be explained in English with the aid of objects, pictures, actions, expressions and situations, while Chinese should be used judiciously, especially in teaching beginners. ⅢNothing should be read before it is heard and spoken. ③Attention should be paid to the teaching of phonetics through all stages. ④Serious training should be given in spelling. ⑤The language should be taught through pattern drills. ⑥Grammar should be taught through drills and in an inductive way. ⑦While we teach the new, the old should be reviewed. In discussing the methodological development before the 1980s in China, Tang summarized four points: ⅠGiving priority to listening and speaking ⅡLaying equal emphasis on all the five basic skills ⅢStressing reading skills ⅣInvolving a more active use of the students’ mental power The last notable tendency is the application of the enlightening method, which resembles, in many ways, the Cognitive-code method, and views language learning as a natural creative process rather than habit formation. This method represents a recent theory which advocates the combination of the learning of the basic skills with the training of students’ competence and intelligence. The last decade saw the influence of the Communi cative Approach in English language teaching in China and its widespread application in the foreign language teaching classroom. In recent years, the Chinese ELT profession is involved in the ―communicative movement‖. Theorists and practitioners have been trying to introduce the Communicative Approach into the English language teaching field. 中国出现的英语教学法:Integrated Application:从整体上说: ?Main stream The Chinese ELT teachers and researchers have been looking for the best method for ELT in China for many years. Through trail and error, people have realized there is no single best method which can meet the needs of all learners all the time. The method chosen must be based on the students’ general needs, their learning style, their age, their interest, their first language and other factors, beca use all of these contribute to successful language teaching and learning. To meet the particular needs of the Chinese learners, the people’s Education Press joined hands with the Longman Group Ltd. In late 80s and early 90s and compiled a textbook series for Chinese secondary school English teachers. The aim of the textbooks are to help students get all-round development of the four skills and an ability to use English for communication. ①The essence of the books could be summarized into the following five aspects: ⅠStudents should be taught to use English, not just to know something about English. ⅡThe method used is a combination of modernism and traditionalism. ⅢThe language material is arranged from simple to difficult according to grammatical structures. ⅣLanguage material is arranged in such a way that students can practise its communicative functions by using its structures. ⅤThe order of practicing the four skills is : listening, speaking, reading and writing. ②The methodological principles listed in the textbooks are: ⅠTeaching should start with the easy to the more difficult, from the known to the unknown. ⅡMaterials should be presented in a spiral system so that what is learned can be reviewed, consolidated and expanded. ⅢLearning by using active use of the language is encouraged. ⅣTeaching materials should be interesting and meet t he students’ needs so that the students are more motivated in learning English. ③The intended teaching procedures: To apply these principles in practice, teachers are required to use a five-step method in the classroom. In each step, the teacher plays a different role: The following chart shows how this methodological framework is organized: Steps and teachers’ role: Revision----Memory reinforcer Presentation----Demonstrator Drill----Organizer/Conductor Practice----Referee/Monitor/Supervisor Consolidation----Helper 中国出现的新的教学法 ①Three Dimensional Approach 立体教学法The 3DA assumes that a foreign language is learned while what is acquired plays only a subsidiary role. Foreign language teaching involves not only students, the target language, the environment, cultures of both the first language and the target language, but the economic development of the country. And the role of the teacher is to maintain a balance between students, the target language and the environment. Secondary education is to prepare the students for the future, therefore, foreign language teaching should not be too utilitarian. In the classroom, the 3DA emphasizes students’ own responsibility of learning . Listening and speaking come before the other ski lls, and there is more extensive reading than intensive reading. Language knowledge is taught concisely and briefly with more class time devoted to language skills. Practice is always done in context. ②The ASSRF Method 十字教学法ASSRF is the short form for ―affective factors, situation, structure, rule and function‖, the five factors which are considered crucial components in foreign language teaching. ⅠAffective factors directly influence language teaching and learning. Therefore, need to be taken seriously. ⅡA favourable environment for language learning can be created if there is a friendly and cooperative relationship between the teacher and the students. ⅢSituation defines the meaning of language use. ⅣStructures, rules and functions of language should all be taken care of in teaching because all are important dimensions of language. ⅤNeglecting any one of them, the teacher would present before the students a false or incomplete picture of language, which would affect appropriate and effective language use. ③dual activity mothed 双重活动教学法This is an approach which puts foreign language teaching in a macro-communicative framework. Proposed by Wang Cairen, the DAM specified six duality: ⅠThe first duality is to teach a language and to educate people. ⅡThe second duality lies in teacher-learner relationship. Both the teacher and the students are important partners in the teaching and learning process. They form the dual center of the classroom. ⅢThe third duality is reflected in the communication between the teacher and the students. Their communication is not only intellectual but an exchange of feelings, attitudes values, etc. ⅣFourthly, English, as a tool for communication, has also its duality: language has its form and content. ⅤThe process of acquiring information input is through external stimuli and internal cognitive activity, which forms the fifth duality: dual channels of acquiring information. ⅥThe last one is about language output. When students use the language they have learned, their production should be not only correct, but also fluent and appropriate. ④Global Method整体教学法In essence, the Global Method is a text-based, top-down approach, which emphasizes a global understanding of the whole text book before tacking local problems or details. Reading is a means as well as an end in itself. One of the advocates of the Global Method holds that teaching should reflect the way learning takes place. In other words, teachers should study not only how to teach, but also how to enable students to learn on their own. He believes that ELT in junior middle schools should follow this procedure: lead in, comprehension, practice, summarizing, development, use, test, reinforcement. While in senior years, the teaching procedure should consist of four steps: ⅠRead the whole text with questions guiding students’ comprehension; ⅡUnderstand the text by moving from global meaning to local meaning; ⅢStudy language structures; ⅣUse knowledge of the language to express meaning. The ultimate aim is to develop stude nts’ independence and autonomy in learning and using the language. ⑤Leveled Method分级教学法What Hao Youming has experimented with during the past 20 years is the importance of taking the specific needs of the students into consideration. Students in the same grade are divided into several classes according to their needs and their different language level. What she proposes in her teaching experiment is ―more practice. Less examination‖. And extra curriculum activities are highly advocated in her experiment. She helped to organize 3 levels of English corner for her students so that each student could have an opportunity to speak with others at a level and pace they feel confident about. That is how her method got its name. ⑥Zhang Sizhong Method 张思中教学法The essence of Zhang Method is the theory of psychological advantage. It believes in the great potential students have once they develop the right interest, enthusiasm and motivation in learning a foreign language. It sees the students as the main force in language learning. Therefore, the training of their learning method and their ability to learn on their own is an indispensable element in their learning of a foreign language. It claims that the teacher’s job is not just to teach a foreign language. What is more important is to guide them in learning by themselves. The Zhang Method could be described as following methodological principles: ⅠAppropriate grouping and concentration; ⅡRepeated spiraling reinforcement; ⅢReading books in the original; ⅣIndividualized instruction. ⑦A brief summary 总结 初级经济法重点总结下载党员个人总结TXt高中句型全总结.doc高中句型全总结.doc理论力学知识点总结pdf The emergence of these methods reflects a fact that the Chinese ELT professionals are now not simply copying foreign methods blindly, nor are they teaching according to their experience or instincts only. They are trying to find a method which is scientifically based and which suits the Chinese conditions, the Chinese teachers and the Chinese learners. What we need is not blind application of foreign methods, nor is eclecticism, but judgement. We must have a clear answer to the following difficult questions before we could find the most effective and efficient method: ⅠWhat mistakes have we made in teaching a foreign language? ⅡIs there anything we have done which hinders foreign language learning? ⅢAre we making things difficult for the students? ⅣWhat are the causes that make the students not as successful as they should be? ⅤDo the techniques and methods we use agree with our understanding of how language is learned? ?Looking ahead For centuries, efforts have been made to look for the best teaching method in foreign/second language teaching. Numerous methods evolved, but not one seems good enough to be universally accepted as the best. Researchers have now begun to shift their attention from seeking the best method to stud ying ―individual differences‖ (ID). The basic argument is that important as they are, textboo ks, teaching techniques, syllabuses, curriculum and teachers are, after all, external factors; what constitutes the decisive role could well be internal factors that individualize the achievement. What characteristics, then does a successful language learner possess? To date, more researchers would agree that the following are important variables in which individual learners may differ: intelligence, language aptitude, cognitive style (field dependence and field independence), personality traits (such as introversion and extroversion, perseverance, anxiety), learning strategies (such as cognitive meta-cognitive, formal and functional), motivation (such as integrative and instrumental), and attitudes towards the target language and its native speakers. In their study of the good language learner. Naiman realized that ―Recognition of the enormous possible variation in learning styles has thus led to a much more complex view of learner-centered instruction, one that includes choices in four areas: objectives of learning, rate of learning, method/style of learning, and content of learning. The teacher becomes less visibly central as the concept of one method for all learners disappears‖. These comments on learner-centered instruction and on the real needs of the s tudents lead toward the current definition of the teacher’s role. Language teachers are no longer seen exclusively as individ uals who hold an transmit language (like any other teachers), but as people who assist the learner to develop a natural capacity to communicate in another language. The teacher is no longer director of the process. Nor is she the mere instrument of the expert who provides a method to be implemented in the classroom. They are monitor, counselor, consultant, etc. They will not possess the kind of control as before over the amount, sequencing, and frequency of usage of the items the learners produce or receive. Rather they are the facilitators of their students’ learning. Based on the above discu ssion on learner-centeredness and the redefinition of the role of the teacher, a number of implications for teacher education and teacher development follow: ①Teacher preparation programmes must move beyond a ―training ‖ perspective to an ―education‖ perspective----one which recognizes that successful teaching involves higher-level cognitive processes that can not be taught directly. ②teachers and student teachers need to adopt a research orientation to their own classrooms and their own teaching. ③Language programmes should reflect an emphasis on inquiry-based and discovery-oriented approaches to learning and teaching. ④Teacher preparation programmes should include experiences that require student teachers to generate theories and hypotheses, and to reflect critically on teaching through gathering data about teaching and learning. ⑤There will inevitably be less dependence on linguistics and language theory as a source discipline for teaching and teacher education, and more of an attempt to integrate sound, educationally based approaches. --Apart from what is introduced in this chapter, what other methods or approaches do you know which are used in China? Over the last 20 years, English language teaching methodology in China has developed very rapidly and has been subject to changes and controversies that language teachers often find bewildering. Recently I know the ―learner-centered Approach‖ which is now being wi dely used in some colleges and universities in China. The methods and techniques introduced in the course (new college English) are intended to represent ―common core‖, drawing on what is of value. Each unit of the course consists of four parts: Preparation, listening-centered Activities, Reading-centered Activities, Futher development.There are rich classroom activities, e.g. class report ,pair work, group discussion, group competition, class debate, role play, speech, simulated dialogue, simulated press conference, etc. These activities will complement other more structure-based practice and should involve learners in real communication. -From the historical development of foreign language teaching in china, what’s the main method used in each period? The main FLT method used in each period in china follows below: (1)The main method used at the turn of the century was a six-step method following the principle that the students should gain new insights though restudying old material.The six-step are: recitation; questions and answers; writing prctice;presentation; spelling practice; sentence making. (2)Grammar-Traslation method was used in the early 20th century. (3)In the fifties, the Russion methodological principles were followed closely. The method used t hen was ―three-centred‖: classroom-centred; teacher-centred; textbook-centered. (4)The method used in the late 70s and 80s was mainly Audiolingual Method in junior middle schools and a combination of audiolingualism and traditionalism in senior middle schools. (5)The decade of 1990s saw the influnce of the communicative movement in China. The main method used was a composite format based on functionalism and structuralism. The representation of this integration is the five-step method: revision, presentation, drill, practice and consolidation. -From the historical development of foreign language teaching worldwide, what do you think will be the trend of FLT in the next century? The trend of foreign language teaching in the next century might be a focus on individualization, and learner-centred instruction. More emphasis would be laid on how learners learn and how to accommodate learners in the learning. The filed of foreign language teaching requires a comprehensive view of how successful learning and teaching is planned for and accomplished in educational settings. The school and classroom should be seen as the context in which planning, development and support activities take place. --From your own experience of learning English, how should a foreign language be taught in your opinion? In my opinion, a foreign language should be taught considering the following aspects: (1)How to study a foreign language well------it depends on many factors, such as motivations, goal, intelligence, attitude, self-confidence, self –determination, learning-environment, and learning strategies. So it is necessary for language teachers to guide learners, including encouraging their motivation by building up self-confidence, developing self-determination, improving the learning environment, and helping them acquire learning strategies, etc. (2)Language is learned not taught. Language learners should be active and creative in learning process. They must be successful language learners who try to learn the new language independently, actively and purposely. They don’t depend on the book or the teacher; they discover their own way to learn the language. They will try anything to communicate. It is necessary for them to learn language in order to communicate with foreigners and to learn from them. (3)Language is for communication. Learners should be taught to use the foreign language, not just to know something about it. A foreign language should be taught. Learned and used as communication, and it is best taught when it is being used to transmit information. (4)Aforeign language is a tool, which should be taught for use. In learning the foreign language, practice is the key. Reasons, definitions, and rules are necessary, but they can only be learned through a large number of drills. Reading skills should be stressed in the five basic skills (learning speaking, reading, writing, translating), and more class time should be spent on reading and on developing reading skills. --What are the merits and limitations of the four new methods introduced in the first section of this chapter? Merits: Total physical Response emphasizes the role of comprehension in second language acquisition. The key component of the courses is to allow the students to use the language for real communication. Performing physical actions in the target language is a means of making language input comprehensible and reducing stress. The Silent way, community Language Learning and suggestopaedia all lay emphasis on the individual and on personal leaning strategies. Each one tries to give the students room and time to learn with as little intrusion of the teacher into the learning process as possible. They all endeavour to involve the whole person of the students. They aim to reduce the anxiety and tension of language learning.Each of these approaches encourages active use of the language in communicative situation. Thy all try to create a community feeling. All these indicate that the focus has been shifted from language teaching to language learning. Limitations: Total physical Response only represents a useful set of techniques, and it should be used in association with other methods and techniques. Learners play a passive role in language process and have little influence over the content of learning. In the Silent way, language is separated from its context and taught through artificial situations. Learners are not exposed to authentic language use, but rules of the grammar. Th ere is not enough teacher modeling, and language input is limited. Therefore, the development of learners’ ability to use the language for communication might be hampered. Community Language Learning might not be feasible in teaching large classes for general language purpose. Suggestopaedia affects, in some degree, the development of learners’ communicative competence and mastering the foreign language. -What do you think of those six methods proposed by Chinese language teachers? The emergence of the six methods (Three Dimensional Approch, The ASSRF Method,DualActivity Method, Globle Method, Leveled Method, and Zhang Sizhong Method) reflects a fact that the Chinese ELT professionals are now not simply copying foreign methods blindly, nor are they teaching according to their experience or instincts only. They are trying to find a method which is scientifically based and which suits the Chinese conditions, the Chinese language teachers and learners.What we need is not blind application of foreign teaching methods, nor is eclecticism, but judgement. With the deepening of education reform, more and more people call for FLT reform in China. A graduaconsensus has been reached concerning the students’ integral competence through teaching reform. We should have to explore the law of English teaching in China and create our new system of English language teaching methodology. -What do you think will be the trend of FLT in China in the next century? In the next century, we should continue to shift our attention from seeking the best teaching method to studying ―individual differences‖ (ID) and ―learner-centred‖ instruction. We should redefine the role of the language teachers. An important future development in methodology will have been the shift of emphasis from the teachers to the learners. Language teachers are asked to experience and evaluate techniques from the learners’ point of view. Thus, although its subject is teaching Engl ish, the course aims to make teachers more aware of their role as monitors, counselors, consultants, and helpers in the learning process. In short, the field of second language and foreign language teaching requires a comprehensive view of how successful learning and teaching is planned for and accomplished in educational settings. Rather than methods determining the curriculum, the school and the classroom should be seen as the context in which planning, development and support activities take place.