中西方隐私观的差异

中西方隐私观的差异 Abstract With the rapid development of globalization, intercultural communication becomes increasingly frequent. As a universal phenomenon, privacy exists in every culture. Different culture has different attitudes towards privacy and different ways to deal with it, which leads to cultural crash and conflict unavoidably. Therefore, this thesis is dedicated to demonstrate the different attitudes of Chinese and westerners towards privacy. This thesis consists of three chapters, which mainly deals with the differences of attitude in opinion of privacy between China and western countries. The first chapter reveals the different orientations of privacy, that is collective privacy in China and individual privacy in western countries; the second chapter presents different manifestations of privacy, including physical space in China and psychological distance in western countries; the last chapter explores the different protections of privacy, which involves self-adjustment in China and legal defence in western countries. By analyzing the differences of privacy between China and the western countries, readers and foreign language learners can improve their ability to carry out communication among cultures. Key words: privacy orientations manifestations protections 摘 要 随着全球化的迅速发展，跨文化交际日益频繁。作为一种社会普遍现象，隐私存 在于各个文化中。不同文化背景的人对隐私有着不同的态度和处理方式，这便导致了 文化碰撞和文化冲突难免在跨文化交际中产生。因此，本文将对比分析中西方不同的 隐私观作为主要研究 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 。 本文包括三章，主要探讨了中西方隐私观的差异。第一章主要揭示中西方隐私的 不同起源，也就是中方的群体隐私和西方的个体隐私。第二章主要研究中西方隐私的 不同 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 现形式，包括中方在空间上的表现和西方在心理上的表现。最后一章主要探讨 中西方隐私的不同保护方法，包括中方的自我调节法和西方的法律保护法。通过对中 西方不同隐私观的对比分析，读者和语言学习者可以提高跨文化交际能力。 关键词:隐私观;起源;表现形式;保护方式 Contents Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. i Abstract ............................................................................................................................. ii Abstract (Chinese) ........................................................................................................... iii Introduction....................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One Different Orientations of Privacy.......................................................... 4 1.1 Collective Privacy in China ...................................................................................... 4 1.2 Individual Privacy in Western Countries .................................................................. 5 Chapter Two Different Manifestations of Privacy...................................................... 7 2.1 Physical Space in China............................................................................................ 7 2.2 Psychological Distance in Western Countries .......................................................... 8 Chapter Three Different Protections of Privacy ......................................................... 9 3.1 Self-adjustment in China .......................................................................................... 9 3.2 Legal Defence in Western Countries ...................................................................... 10 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 12 Notes ................................................................................................................................. 13 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 14 Introduction In the current process of cultural pluralism and globalization, the privacy issue has become a growing concern. Privacy is the control and regulation mechanism of interaction with others. People in the East and the West show great differences in cross-cultural communication and understanding of the privacy, which can make communication difficult and even causes cultural conflicts in a subconscious way. So it is very important for us to know the different views on privacy between China and western countries. In order to help readers and foreign language learners develop their capability to stride across the barriers of international cultural communication or avoid the misunderstanding in communication, this thesis will make a study on the differences of privacy between China and western countries in various aspects. There are diverse views about privacy at abroad. A lot of studies from various perspectives have been made on this issue. In the book Ben Franklin’s Web Site: Privacy and Curiosity from Plymouth Rock to the Internet by Smith, published in 2000, the author explores the hidden niches of American history to discover the tug between Americans’ yearning for privacy and their insatiable curiosity. The book describes Puritan monitoring in Colonial New England, then shows how the founders place the concept of privacy in the Constitution. This panoramic view continues thwith the coming of tabloid journalism in the 19 century, and the reaction to it in the form of a new right—the right to privacy. The book includes the histories of wiretapping, credit reporting, sexual practices, social security numbers and ID cards, modern principles of privacy protection, and the coming of the Internet, etc. The book Communication Between Cultures by Samovar, published in 2000, provides students with an understanding and appreciation of different cultures and the practical skills for improving their communication with people from other cultures. It includes numerous compelling examples that force students to examine their own assumptions and cultural biases. It is divided into four interrelated parts: Part I introduces the study of communication and culture; Part II focuses on the ability of culture to shape and modify our view of reality; Part III puts the theory of intercultural communication into practice; and Part IV converts knowledge into action. In the book Doing Culture: Cross-cultural Communication in Action published in 2001, the author Davis is a westerner who teaches Chinese students English for many years. She provides quite a few examples that do show the differences between western and Chinese cultural attitudes. The different styles of the U.S. and Chinese cultures are laid out in the text. So this is a book 1 written by a wise and famous teacher who seeks to enlighten students with her great knowledge because of her love of Chinese cultures. Apart from all the opinions at abroad mentioned above, there are still lots of distinctive views about privacy at home. The book Intercultural Communication-Covert Culture in the Foreign Language and Literature by Gu Jiazu, published in 2000, is considered as the breakthrough in intercultural communication. It is divided into seven parts, which mainly concludes the content of public culture and hidden culture as well as the ways of covert culture’s exposition. An overview of both macro and micro theory is used to observe the different cultures from the multi-angle and the multi-level. The aspects of language and culture, literature and culture, translation and culture and education and culture are all mentioned in this book. Proceeding from China’s national conditions, the book gives readers some new inspiration of cross-cultural communication at the level of both theory and practice. In “Comparison of Privacy View of China and America” in Journal of Anhui Vocational College of Police Officers in January, 2004, Yuan Zicong pays much attention to the comparison of the cultural concept of privacy between Chinese and Americans and gives a brief analysis of the reasons for it. Besides, the legal definition of privacy is also involved. In the article, Robert Smith, the issuer of Privacy magazine states that: early in the North American continent and the British colony, the Americans have already been aware of the need to engage with privacy, and later they pay more emphasis on privacy so as to seek religious freedom. Robert Smith adds that it stems from the distrust of government that Americans stress privacy so much. In “Cultural Differences Reflected by Privacy of Chinese and American” in Journal of Cultural Research in 2006, Li Hongtao and Liu Lingling give us a view that mutual respect for private rights is the premise of cultural communication. This article explores the cultural differences of the privacy between Chinese and westerners from the view of language and culture. In English, some of the words are often used to describe the people who like to inquire about the private affairs of others: “Poke into other people’s business”, “meddle in other people’s affairs”, “keep your nose out of our business” and “put not your hand between the bark and the tree”. All these are showing that westerners are with particular emphasis on the protection of personal lives. While, the rules of traditional Chinese culture on privacy are not that obvious. In the article “On the Difference Between Oriental and Western’s Privacy” in Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education in 2007, Shang Yunhe claims that Chinese have consistently opposed the concept of “privacy”. In China, individual rights are regarded as self-interest, so there 2 is no concept of private rights. In the traditional Chinese culture, individualism is a derogatory term. However, in the western culture, individualism and self-interest are not exactly equal. Individualism is a product of democracy and every single man has an equal status to expand development. In “On the Concept of Privacy in China and the West” in Journal of Jiangsu Polytechnic University in June, 2007, Cai Fang points out that privacy exists in every culture. In different cultures, people’s concept of privacy greatly differs. Collectivism-oriented Chinese attach much importance to group privacy while individual privacy is neglected. In contrast, individualism-oriented westerners consider individual privacy to be more significant. Private time, private space and private rights are what they are tempted to protect. In “On Privacy and Intercultural Communication” by Zhai Shilei and Li Hao in Journal of Dalian University in October, 2007, Zhai and Li discuss that privacy, as a value and psychological concept, has been given different understandings in different cultures. In the traditional sense, the Chinese people usually protect their own privacy through the physical form, such as walls and fences to cut off with the outside world. In western society, privacy is an individual state of mind, it is the recognition and protection starting from the perspective of human rights and individualism. In “Exploration of the Differences Between Western and Chinese Concept of Privacy and Their Causes” by Cui Suhua in Social Sciences Journal of Colleges of Shanxi in January, 2009, the author maintains that Chinese and westerners hold different values due to the background differences, and thus the understanding of the scope of privacy is not the same which inevitably results in conflict in international exchanges. Westerners emphasize much on privacy, the investigation conducted by Wall Street Journal and NBC in 1999 shows that privacy is the greatest stconcern of Americans in the 2l century. While to the Chinese, the individual is subordinate to the collective, everyone should obey the social ethics in order to achieve collective solidarity. In her article “The Privacy Difference in the Communication Between Chinese and American” in Theory Research in June, 2010, Zhang Yue-e offers an introduction of privacy and its classification. Through the analysis of the causes and future trends of the different privacy concepts, the author comes to the conclusion: different cultures contact and collide with each other under the trend of globalization. From the deep level, economy is the constituent behind this cultural phenomenon, that is to say, the development and changes of privacy are inextricably linked with the economy. 3 Based on the study of the provided reports, essays and journals, national or international, this thesis concentrates on analyzing the different attitudes of privacy from three aspects: the different orientations of privacy, the different manifestations of privacy and the different protections of privacy. In order to examine these research questions more effectively, I would like to adopt an explanatory, classificatory, summary comparison way of discussion for this thesis. This analysis will provide an effective way to readers and foreign language learners to know the different attitudes towards privacy better, so that they can carry out cross-cultural communication successfully. Chapter One Different Orientations of Privacy Every society has its own traditional values. In the system of values, collectivism and individualism are separately the core understanding of Chinese and western cultures. Many cultural phenomena are rooted in the different conceptions of collectivism and individualism, without exception in privacy. This chapter mainly analyzes the different orientations of privacy between China and western countries. 1.1 Collective Privacy in China Collectivism, as the core of Chinese values, is defined as the ideological concept that everything from the collective, collective interests above personal interests. It stresses the obligation and responsibility of the individual to the collective and it highlights that collective interest goes first and the individual interest should submit to the collective interest. Judging from the earlier economic forms, the small-scaled agriculture is China’s traditional economic pattern whose main characteristics are family labor and small-scaled operators. Self-sufficiency of natural economy makes farming and cottage industries combine within the family. And the farmers must unite to resist the instruction of natural disasters and man-made forces in order to survive. It can be said that small-scaled agriculture formed the group-based awareness of the Chinese people, such a group-based awareness lay a profound influence on Chinese culture. Thus, you can understand why Chinese people value the group will and neglect the personal privacy. In the opinion of Chinese traditional social structure, family is the basic unit of the 4 composition of the country, individuals need to be attached to the family to survive. Kinship and clan relations are the existence that traditional Chinese people have to pay attention to. The individual is valuable just because he is part of the group and his fate and interests are all decided by groups. According to Xu Xingyan, “Chinese traditional culture is to ignore the people’s individual value. The essence of the personality perfection is precisely the suppression and sacrifice of people’s individual needs and personality, in order to achieve the maintenance of 1 group orders.”From this we can see that Chinese culture is the culture of an obligation, people in his family network and social structural relationships needs to do the behavior consistent with his role and identity. So, Chinese people usually spend their mind on the maintenance of group privacy because that they live in groups and to protect the privacy of groups is also to protect their own privacy. From the ideological point of view, Chinese culture is based on Confucianism, which is founded by Confucius, aims to safeguard national stability and social harmony, and advocates the establishment of a kind of collectivism that emphasizes the collective interest above individual interest. Under the influence of Confucianism, the stability and harmony of the groups are the purpose of Chinese, members of society should confess allegiance to the group through improving the moral and enhancing the ideological realm. In modern China, people have strong sense of community and belonging on collective, Chinese advocate that everyone should put the families’, society’s and countries’ interest at the first place. The community generally agrees that the maintenance of the whole society’s benefit is the value of the personal life, and the individualistic wish should obey countries’. Thousands of years’ history of the nation identifies this notion as social spirit, the inevitable consequence of which is that people express concern about the other people’s affair in the community as their own to care about, and do not think that is a violation of personal privacy. 1.2 Individual Privacy in Western Countries Individualism, as the core value of western countries, is defined as to promote the free movement of persons and faith completely free theory, including self-motivation, self-choice, self-reliance, respect others, individual freedom and respect for privacy. The birthplace of western civilization is in Europe, and the beginning of European civilization is in ancient Greek whose center of civilization is the Mediterranean region. The special natural conditions lead to the undeveloped agricultural economy, at the same time, the very convenient waterway traffic presents its advantage, so the development of industry and commerce 5 is quickly stimulated. Westerners begin to get their material condition of existence through commercial exchange. And in the process of commercial exchanges, they not only get the tribal survival substances but also find the value and significance of individuals in business dealings. The strength and wisdom of the individual person get more and more emphasized in the ocean trade and the struggle between man and the sea. What’s more, with the rise of the industrial and commercial sectors, the commercial principles based on equal exchange promote the appearance of individual consciousness, thus westerners cultivate the cultural spirit of individualism. From this point of view, we can understand why westerners focus on individuals and personal privacy at such a large degree. Under the influence of the marine culture, westerners insist that the survival and development of individuals are decided by their own. In their minds, families and individuals are just a temporary relationship, family members emphasize personal freedom, right and the sense of independence and dilute personal responsibility and obligation of the family. In the ownership of property, they follow the principle that cohabitation but separate wealth, so that father and son, husband and wife have their own private property which is protected by law. Thus, the value of equality and the dignity of the individual family members are able to be recognized. Besides, Christian culture educate people to abandon the family obligation and burden the religious obligation. Renaissance and religious revolution certainly establish the values and the thpersonal dignity of individuals. Enlightenment of the 18 century finalizes the natural rights in a thlegal form and the 20 century existentialist philosophy which focuses on life stresses that each person must be responsible for their own choice. So far, the ideological worldview of individualism in western culture developes to the extreme. Western culture is a culture of entitlement, “According to the classical natural law, right is regarded as personal inherent moral qualities and has an inalienable nature. This right concept establishes a personal image 2 independent of groups and others.”Therefore, westerners decide their own proper lifestyle without any interference and this strong tendency to individualism leads them to emphasize so much on personal privacy. To sum up, since collectivism and individualism are separately the core value of Chinese and western cultures, they have deeply penetrated in all kinds of lifestyles and all walks of life. What one thinks, says and does are consciously or unconsciously denoting the influence of them. So, the understanding of collectivism and individualism is crucial for studying the different attitudes of privacy between China and western countries. 6 Chapter Two Different Manifestations of Privacy Different values and traditions in China and Western societies lead Chinese and westerners have different requirements for privacy and different ways to pay attention to privacy, therefore there are differences in the manifestations of privacy. This is particularly reflected in space culture, that is physical space in China and psychological distance in western countries. 2.1 Physical Space in China It is famous that Chinese people prefer advocating the construction of walls to protect their own. Chinese people are used to using walls, fences and other things to get their house or garage surrounded. Wrapped with the circle structure, people feel more secure, and it seems to them that their privacy is naturally protected. The Great Wall and the Forbidden City are typical examples. So, from the ancient times to the present, in Chinese dynasties, the establishment of a new nation must be accompanied by newly built wall to consolidate the country and newly built palace for the maintenance of security. Today is still the case, both State and family, urban or rural, factory or school, garrison or park, walls regardless of high or short, wide or narrow, soil or iron, and even wood or bamboo fence can be seen everywhere. Such culture of advocating walls of Chinese people is in fact a protection of group interest, a maintenance of group privacy. In the past, the traditional Chinese family is a large family of three generations or three generations above, dozens of people living in a mansion courtyard. A typical Chinese-style home must include houses, courtyards, walls and a closed door. Within its walls, the family form a self-contained and indivisible whole. Wall, as a physical barrier, isolates the family home from the outside world, and bounded by walls, things within it should not be published. Outside the traditional courtyard walls, there is a protective screen wall to ensure that even if the door is wide open, outsiders can not spy on the secret. In general, Chinese architecture is a framework structure which has a high transparency while the shape of western architectural structure is a block structure which has a strong entity. Western architectural entities reflect that western culture is derived from individuals and emphasizes individual entities while Chinese culture focuses groups, continuity and mutual support. In many western cities and schools, there are no walls or other spacers, western concrete buildings and 7 castles mostly emphasize spacious and commodious vision. In China, tall walls are a protection to safeguard the common interest of the group, people stress the collective field, while the construction of the west is more a manifestation of showing the individual pursuit and field independence. 2.2 Psychological Distance in Western Countries Westerners are extremely sensitive to distance, especially psychological distance, they pay special attention to protect their private lands and private space, so as not to be violated. Unlike Chinese culture of advocating walls, in the Western cities or villages, walls are difficult to find, the dividing line of each territory does not seem to exist, however, the real dividing line is in fact exists in the Westerners’ hearts. The bordering neighbors separate from each other by psychologically specific neighborhood boundaries and they never enter someone else’s territory without permission. In the West, if a person intrudes into other’s house, the consequences will be disastrous. “A man’s home is his castle” is an important tenet of the westerners, it’s an expression of the Western concept of individual privacy. Within the house, rooms are completely isolated from one to another, each family member has his own separate room, the room is his personal site and private area in order to ensure the privacy of the individual. Even parents do not have the right to entry into the children’s room without permission, the unauthorized break into the room is considered impolite and does not respect the privacy of others. The personal belongings in the room should not be utilized if one does not seek the consent of the owner, because it involves personal privacy. This shows that the privacy protection awareness of westerners has penetrated into all aspects of family life, the concept of privacy has become one of the basic values of Western culture. In social interaction, each westerner needs to have their own field, an invisible space around his body that don’t allow others to invade. Such as what is mentioned in a book, “Westerners together, if there is an outsider walk into one’s 18-inch range, it will be seen as an intrusion even 3 under a large crowd.”From this we can see that westerners need a space distance around them to protect their intangible territory. Westerners do not want to interfere in other people’s privacy, of course, do not want others to intervene and interfere in their privacy. Some of the common problems in Chinese culture and conversation, such as age, income, religion, hobbies, marriage and family, constitute a violation of privacy rights for westerners. In short, due to the different concepts of privacy, the manifestations of privacy in China and western countries are largely different, for the physical space of Chinese, people should respect 8 the distinct boundaries; for the psychological distance of westerners, language learners have to develop cross-cultural awareness to familiarize with the invisible dividing lines. Chapter Three Different Protections of Privacy Privacy is a psychological environment of confidential nature, it is a state of mind existing in certain groups or individuals that do not want or can not be known for another person or group. Therefore, in order to protect their privacy right, Chinese and westerners take measures from different aspects, such as self-adjustment in China and legal-defence in western countries. 3.1 Self-adjustment in China Chinese are used to regarding the feelings and attitudes as a matter of personal things, a kind of privacy, they never let out but rely on psychological mechanism adjustment to protect it. For instance, Chinese women will put one hand over mouth or turn away when they laugh, this is a typical example for the remedy of the lost control of personal feelings. For privacy, Chinese adopt a psychological self-restraint compression, they curb on the preferences of the opposite sex, they simmer the anger inside their heart, they hide their feelings of some sensitive issues, such as sex, the beauty of the human body, joy, risk, difficulty or distress. The strong desire of things, the pursuit of beauty and even the trepidation of family member’s serious illness is treated as personal privacy, will be processed with self-repression to protect. So, to remain silent is a very important means of regulating privacy for Chinese. In the society of human existence, there are the social side and of course the personal side, but Chinese culture emphasizes the social side more than the personal side, so Chinese bury their true feelings deeply in heart to accommodate group needs and harmonious social development. In this way, under social control, individuals survive in a culture of shame, they are embarrassed or can not be too casual to express their feelings and attitudes, otherwise they will lose face. China’s traditional culture and expectations of society require people to be self-controlled, calm and moderate when dealing with others. The degree of self-restraint of Chinese to adjust privacy is relevant to social factors, which means that they know there are some things you can speak and some other things that can not speak. In general, the degree of restraint is directly related to the closeness of social relations. In 9 China, along with the older age and higher education level, people are inclined to only report the good news instead of the bad to their parents. The greater age and the higher educational level they are, the less willingness they have to tell their own difficulty, distress and risk to their parents, because they don’t want to share pain and sadness with the elderly. This traditional virtue of filial piety is also a factor that conduces Chinese to be self-restraint and self-adjust when they face the music. 3.2 Legal Defence in Western Countries Westerners’ protection of privacy is embodied in the use of law to maintain privacy right. Privacy right, in a legal sense, is first put forward by two scholars in the United States. In 1890, law professors Samuel D.Warren and Louis D.Brandis of Harvard University published an article called “The Right to Privacy”. Since then, privacy is classified as a natural right of people, and privacy issues are merged into the field of legal research. Privacy is honored by a long time in the United States. Starting in the 1960s, the U.S. Court dealt with a series of privacy-related litigation that established many precedents for this litigation. Since then, the U.S. government has also developed a series of law to protect citizens’ privacy, such as “Freedom of Information Act” in 1967, “ Privacy Act” and “Family Education and Privacy Act” in l974. Then they formulated the standard to determine whether an act constitutes a violation of privacy. Firstly, to analyze whether the person has been infringed has a privacy expectation or not; secondly, privacy violations always have consequences, it would make people who have a normal sensitivity feel ashamed or emotional frustrated. Now, the law of the United States to protect privacy includes the following aspects: one shall not use a person’s name or portrait for commercial purpose without consent; people have the right to be let alone; the private behaviour of people should be protected and not subject to inappropriate publishing or exposure. In western countries, privacy is a sacred barrier, and there are many lively examples to illustrate. Once in California, there was a policeman who checks the trash due to the detection of cases without a search warrant was brought to court for the violation of the citizen privacy. Although the final court made a judgment conducive to the police or to facilitate the work of the police from a starting of protecting the interest of the community. But before long, Supreme Court of some states have recognized in the jurisprudence that in the aspect of citizen privacy, they should provide more stringent protection than the Constitution of the United States, and the police must hold a search warrant when they check the garbage. In 2004, Seattle police found a man cultivate cannabis at home via infrared monitor, before this man being judged, he accused the 10 police of invading his privacy and asked the court not to consider the evidence obtained through infrared technology. Moreover, “Family Education and Privacy Act” provides that the school has no power to investigate the family situation of students, and parents have no right to probe the performance of students at school. Thus it can be seen that legal-defence is the most important device for westerners to protect their privacy. To make a summary, under the influence of Chinese traditional culture, people in China developed a moderate characteristic to deal with things and other persons. In the issue of privacy, they adopt a self-adjustment means to protect themselves from hurt. While the marine culture with dense commercial element affects westerners a lot, they tend to protect their privacy right with legal-defence, a more effective way. Conclusion This paper mainly talks about some obvious differences of privacy between China and the western countries in the aspects of orientations, manifestations, and protections. The orientation of Chinese privacy is rooted in collectivism and Chinese pay much attention to the group privacy, while westerners pay more attention to the individualism and emphasize the personal privacy. Influenced by different traditional cultures, there are different manifestations of privacy, Chinese people advocate the use of physical entity such as walls to show their ownership while westerners are more likely to use psychological consciousness to affirm their invisible territory. The means of protection is another obvious difference, from which we can conclude that Chinese are in favor of self-adjustment while westerners prefer legal-defence when they take measures to protect privacy. After the analysis of the different attitudes of privacy between China and the western countries in this paper, to some extent, language learners can have a better understanding about Chinese and western cultures. Though this paper is still not comprehensive, it provides more details in the explanation of privacy from aspects of orientations, manifestations, and protections. On the one hand, it can make more Chinese and western language learners know Chinese and western privacy concepts better. On the other hand, it can contribute to promote the communication between Chinese and western cultures, which is the essential part of international cross-cultural communication. Because of the limited time and personal ability, this paper only 11 touches upon a limited number of aspects of the differences of privacy between China and the western countries, so further studies in other aspects such as the development of different private attitudes should be continuously carried out. It hopes that more and more people will be aware of the importance of privacy issues and reduce unnecessary communication failures in intercultural communication. Notes 12 1徐行言, 中西文化比较 (北京: 北京大学出版社, 2008) 83. 2 王莉君, 权利与权力的思辨 (北京: 中国法制出版社, 2005) 33. 3 布罗斯纳安, 中国和英语国家非语言交际对比 (北京: 北京语言学院出版社, 1991) 213. Bibliography 13 Claire J. Kramsch. Language and Culture[M]. Oxford University Press, 1998. Davis, L. Doing Culture: Cross-cultural Communication in Action[M]. 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