Comparison of Human Language and Animal Communication 人类动物语言比较

Comparison of Human Language and Animal Communication Similarity:  Both are composed of SIGNS (forms with meaning) Six Key Differences: 1. Animal: The signs of animal systems are inborn. Human:  The capacity to be creative with signs is inborn, but the signs (words) themselves are acquired culturally. --------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Animal: Communication is set responses to stimuli (indexes). Human: Not limited to use as an index.      --------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Animal: Each sign has one and only one function; each meaning can be expressed only in one way Human: Signs often have multiple functions; one meaning can be expresses in many ways --------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. Animal: Not naturally used in novel way Human: Creative, can be adapted to new situations --------------------------------------------------------------------- 5. Animal: Closed inventory of signs; only a set number of different messages can be sent Human: Open ended.  Grammar (rules of syntax) allows a virtually unlimited number of messages to be constructed --------------------------------------------------------------------- 6. Animal: Change extremely slowly, with the speed of genetic   evolution. Human: Change rapidly as a cultural phenomenon. Swahili   (adapted from An Introduction to Language, Fromkin and Rodman) 1. mtoto amefika 'The child has arrived' 9. kisu kimeanguka 'The knife has fallen' 2. mtoto anafika 'The child is arriving' 10. kisu kinaanguka 'The knife is falling' 3. watoto wamefika 'The children have arrived' 11. visu vimeanguka 'The knives have fallen' 4. watoto wanafika 'The children are arriving' 12. visu vinaanguka 'The knives are falling' 5. mtu amelala 'The man has slept' 13. kikapu kimeanguka 'The basket has fallen' 6. mtu analala 'The man is sleeping' 14. vikapu vinaanguka 'The baskets are falling' 7. watu wamelala 'The men have slept' 15. mtoto ameanguka 'The child has fallen' 8. watu wanalala 'The men are sleeping' 16. watu wanaanguka 'The men are falling'         One of the characteristic features of Swahili (and Bantu languages in general) is the existence of noun classes. There are specific singular and plural prefixes that occur with the nouns of each class. These prefixes are also used for purposes of agreement between the subject-noun and the verb. In the sentences given, two of these classes are included (there are many more in the language). A.     Identify all the morphemes you can detect. Be sure to look for the other noun and verb affixes, including tense markers. Class 1 singular noun prefix       m-        Class 1 singular subject agreement        a- Class 1 plural noun prefix          wa-      Class 1 plural subject agreement           wa- Class 2 singular noun prefix       ki-        Class 2 singular subject agreement        ki- Class 2 plural noun prefix          vi-        Class 2 plural subject agreement           vi- present prefect prefix    me- present progressive       na- Nouns Class 1                                                Class 2 -toto     child                                         -su       knife -tu        man                                          -kapu   basket Verbs -fika     ‘arrive’             -lala      ‘sleep’              -anguka            fall B. How is the verb constructed? That is, what kinds of morphemes are strung together and in what order?   Agreement Prefix + Tense/Aspect Pre fix + V 6.) Examine the following words from Michoacan Aztec  nokali “my house” mopelo “your dog” nokalimes “my houses” mopelomes “your dogs”  mokali “your house” ipelo “his dog” ikali “his house” nokwahmili “my cornfield” kalimes “houses” mokwahmili “your cornfield” ikwahmili “his cornfield” a. The morphene meaning “house” is (1) Kal (2) Kali (3) Kalim (4) ikal (5) Ka  b. The morphene meaning “cornfield” is: (1) Kwahmilimes (2) nokwahmilimes (3) nokwahmili (4) kwahmili  (5) ikwahmilimes c. The word meaning “his dog” is: (1) pelos (2) ipelomes (3) ipelos (4) mopelo (5) pelomes  d. If the word meaning “friend” in this language is mahkwa, then the word meaning “my friend” is: (1) momahkwa (2) imahkwas (3) momahkwames  (4) momahkwaes (5) nomahkwames e. The word meaning dog in this language is: (1) pelo (2) Perro (3) peli (4) pel (5) mopel page101 - #8 8.) Below are some sentences in Swahili: mtoto amefika “The child has arrived.” mtoto anafika “The child is arriving.” mtoto atafika “The child will arrive.” watoto wamefika “The children have arrived.” watoto wanafika “The children are arriving.” watoto watafika “The children will arrive.” mtu amelala “The man has slept.” mtu analala “The man is sleeping.” mtu atalala “The man will sleep.” watu wamelala “The man have slept.” watu wanalala “The men are sleeping.” watu watalala “The men will sleep.” kisu kimeanguku “The knife has fallen.” kisu kinaanguka “The Knife is falling.” kisu kitaanguka “The knife will fall.” visu vimeanguka “The knives have fallen.” visu vinaanguka “The knives are falling.”  visu vitaanguka “The knives will fall.” kikpu kimeanguka “The basket has fallen.” kikapu kinaanguka “The basket is falling.” kikapu kitaanguka “The basket will fall.” vikapu vimeanguka “The baskets have fallen.” vikapu vinaanguka “The baskets are falling.” vikapu vitaanguka “The baskets will fall.” One of the characteristic features of Swahili (and Bantu languages in general) is the existence of noun classes. There are specific singular and plural prefixes that occur with the nouns in each class. These prefixes are also used for purposes of agreement between the subject-noun and the verb. In the sentence given, two of these classes are included (there are many more in the language). a. Identify all the morphemes you can detect and give their meanings. Example: -toto “child” m- noun prefix attached to singular nouns of class I a- prefix attached to verbs when the subject is a singular noun of Class I.  Be sure to look for other noun and verb markers, including tense markers. toto = child m = noun prefix attached to singular nouns of class I a = prefix attached to verbs when the subject is a singular noun of class I.  wa = Plural prefix attached to nouns tu = man ki = noun prefix attached to singular nouns of class II vi = plural prefix attached to nouns su = knife kapu = basket anguka = verb arrive na = is b. how is the verb constructed? That is, what kind of morphemes are strung together in what order?  The helping noun is before the root and the verb is constructed through infixes. c. How would you say in Swahili: (1) The child is falling. = (1) mtota ananguka  (2) The basket has arrived. = (2) vikapu vimefika (3) The man will fall. = (3) mtu kitaanguka page 102 - #9 9.) One morphological process not discussed in this chapter is called reduplication-the formation of new words through the repetition of part or all of a word-which occurs in a number of languages. The following examples from Samoan exemplify this kind of morphological rule.  manao “he wishes” mananao “they wish” matua “he is old” matutua “they are old” malosi “he is stron” malolosi “they are strong” punou “he bends” punonou “the bend” atamaki “he is wise” atamamaki “they are wise” savali “he travels” savavali “they travel” pese “he sings” pepese “they sing” laga “he weaves” lagaga “they weave” a. What is Samoan for:  (1) they weave = lagaga  (2) they travel = savavali  (3) he sings = pese  b. Formulate a general statrement (a morphological rule) that states how to form the plural verb form from the singular ver form. Take the second consonant and the vowel that follows and and put it in as an infix to create a plural (infixing/placing it immediately after the second consonant and the vowel that follows)  Page 307 (3,4,5,13) page 307 - #3 3.) Consider the distribution of [r] and [l] in Korean in the following words: [uu] is a high back unrounded vowel. it does not affect your analysis in this problem. rupi “ruby” mul “water” kiri “road” pal “big” saram “person” seul “Seoul” iruumi “name” ilkop “seven” ratio “radio” ipalsa “barber” Are [r] and [l] allophones of one or two phonemes? a. Do they occur in minimal pairs?  Yes, they do not occur in minimal pairs b. Are they in complimentary distribution? If you can make a rule of law - they accour, yes they are in complimentary distribution. c. In what environments does each occur? r always occurs before the vowel. l always occurs after a vowel. If you conclude that they are allophones of one phoneme, state the rule that can derive the phonetic allophonic forms. 4.) Korean |s| and |s| are in complimentary distribution and |s| is an allophone of |s| - |s| can occur anywhere full unit and |s| must always proceed.  5.) Bantu a.) |s| - |s| - |s| occurs before a middle or back vowel |s| occurs between two vowels |Z| always proceeds ani |Z| can occur anywhere in a word. b.) Basic Phonemes [t] [s] [z] c.) The phonemes [t,s,z] become alveo palatal allophones [c,s,z} 13.) African Maninka a.) li, ni b.) ni is added for ing when there is an action verb, li is added for ing as well c.) da, dali famu, famuni me, menni sunogo, sunogoli