词汇学论文

Book Review The mane of the book: An Introduction to English Lexicology (Fourth Edition) Authors: Lin Chengzhang and Liu Shiping Publisher: Wu Han University Press After reading An Introduction to English Lexicology (Fourth Edition), I received a lot. Now I will summarize it: 一、Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Lexicology deals with words. Words are the foundation and core of language. We know that without words, there would be no language, while without language, there would be no linguistics. Therefore, words, that is, lexicology, language and linguistics are very closely interrelated with one another. 1. A Definition of Language Language is a system of symbols based on physiology, psychology and physics. It is specific social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. 2. Language, Society and Thought From the historical development of language we see that any language reflects the culture of a society in a particular period. There language is a mirror reflecting the culture of a society. We cannot find many Modern Language words in Old English or Middle Language, such as cybercafé, docudrama, moonwalk, prolife, television, etc. This proves that language changes with the development of a society. There can be no doubt therefore that language is a product of society. In this sense language is inseparable from human society. Language is used as a means of communication in a society. People use language to say something to each other and express their daily needs for communication. As society is constantly in a state of development, so is language. Society depends upon language for its existence. As society develops new objects are created that require the invention of new words and expression. Man?s thought is indispensable to language to language just as language is inseparable from society. Language is used to express man?s thought. The process of thinking is closely connected with language. 3. A Definition of Linguistics Generally speaking, linguistics is the scientific study of language. To be more 1 exactly, linguistic is” the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure, and modification of language.” 4. The Scope of Linguistics It includes phonology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, philology, stylistics, general linguistics, descriptive linguistics, contrastive linguistics, comparative linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, met linguistics and others. 5. What Is Lexicology? Lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. 6. Aims and Significance of the Course of English Lexicology Aim: it is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. Significance: The significance of a course in English lexicology for language learning is evident. The course will help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use English words. 7. Two Approaches to the Study of English Lexicology There are two approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, synchronic and diachronic. A synchronic means describing is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time, whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of to the change in a language that took place over a period of time. E.g. synchronically, words like January, March, Sunday, Monday, eventful, talkative. Diachronic, words like Sunnadag, Wodnesdag. 二、Word-formation in English 1. Introduction Word-formation or word-building is an important means of vocabulary enlargement. The expansion of the vocabulary is a common and natural phenomenon of any language, including the English language. 2. Morphological Structure of Words A word is a minimum free form. For instance, work is a word, and so is worker. But structurally speaking, work and worker are somewhat different whereas worker can not be broken down into any smaller units, worker can. The word worker can be divided into two grammatically significant elements: work and –er. Such word forms as books, desks can also be divided into two grammatically significant elements: book or desk and –s. These minimal grammatical units are called morphemes. 3. Two Types of Morphemes (1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. Free morphemes are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. Bound morphemes are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. The English word unfaithful consists of three morphemes: un-, faith, and –ful. Faith is a free morpheme. Un- and –ful are bound morphemes. (2)Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemes. Lexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words (e.g. the word blackbird is coined on the basis of two lexical morphemes: black and bird.) Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense (e.g. books, studied, etc.) 4. Three Types of Words 1、Simple words: A simple word is one which contains only one free form, such as man, sun. 2、Compound words A compound word is one which has one free form, such as blackbird. 3、Complex words: A complex word is one which has one free form and one or more than one bound form, such as frankness. 5、The Main Process of English Word-formation There are four main types of word-formation in English: (1) Predication; (2) Suffixation; (3) Conversion; (4) Compounding. 三、English Idioms 1. The Definition of Idioms: An idiom is an element of a language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use. In other words, an idiom is a fixed group of words or a single word, or even a sentence, with a special meaning of an idiom must be learned as a whole. A simple definition of the idiom would be the use of common words in a special sense. To spill the beans, for instance, is not at all connected with beans: it means ?to tell something that is secret.? 2. The Significance of Studying English Idioms English idioms are an important part of the English vocabulary. They have existed for many centuries and are still in use. Today new idiomatic expressions or idioms constantly appear in English. V. H. Collins states:”In standard spoken and written English today idiom is an established, universal and essential element that, used with care, ornaments and enriches the language.” 3. The Features of English Idioms English idioms are a kind of special speech form that is peculiar in grammatical structure, meaning and usage. They have the following fundamental features: 1)English idioms can be very short or rather long. Many idioms consist of two or more words, e.g. An Indian summer Forty winks To be all in Some idioms are much longer, sometimes they consisting of entire sentence, e.g. All good things come to an end. To be like a bear with a sore head To cut one?s coat according to one?s cloth 2)English idioms take different structures. There are there kinds of structures of English idioms. The first kind has an irregular and illogical structure. In the sentence “I am a good friends with him,” good friends with is an idiom where the structure is irregular, but the meaning is clear. The second kind has a regular structure, but the meaning is not clear. To have a bee in one?s bonnet [head], for instance, has a regular structure, but the meaning is not clear. It means …to have a strange fixed idea about something.?It is impossible to explain the idiom from the original meaning of the individual words. It should be mentioned that most English idioms belong to this category.] The third kind is a special group in which both structure and meaning are irregular. (To do) through thick and thin is an example. Not only the structure of (verb) + prep. + adj. (used as nouns) is a bit difficult for us to understand, but the meaning of the idiom cannot be guessed. It means …through both good and bad times? or …in spite of all the difficulties.? 3)The idioms which cannot be changed at all are called fixed idioms. The idiom A Stitch in time saves nine is a fixed idiom, because no one word can be changed in it. It is not possible to say ?One stitch in time saves nine,? or …A stitch in time saves eight.? The idioms which are not fixed in all parts are considered as only partly fixed idioms, e.g. To come to a bad end is an unsettled idiom. 4)An English idiom has a special meaning. To rain cats and dogs is an idiom whose meaning cannot be determined from its component parts. Mastery of the idiom comes only through careful study and practice. Only then can we grasp its meaning (to rain very hard). 5)English idioms are not only used as colloquial expression, they can also be found in formal situations, in poetry or fiction, or in slang. Many idioms can be used in any situation. 6)Some idioms consist of obsolete words. E.g. for the sake of ——for the good or advantage of hither and thither ——in all directions 7)English idioms represent a semantic unit, though they contain a group of words. E.g. For example, the phrase make up one?s mind may be replaced by a single word: decide. To bring up——to educate To go on——to continue 8)English idioms are usually made of commonly——used words. They are vivid in usage, brief in structure and profound in meaning. E.g. once in a blue moon——once in a very long time; very rarely; almost never to come true——to happen just as one wished, expected, dreamt, etc 9)English idioms are often created on the basis of alliteration, thyme, euphony and repetition. E.g. black and blue, first and foremost, part and parcel. 4、English Idioms in Different styles 1)Idioms used in colloquial style: E.g. To server someone right——to be a good punishment for someone After all you?ve eaten it will serve you right if you get a pain in your stomach. 2)Idioms used in any situation: E.g. To pass over——to fail to deal with; to try not to mention something Let us pass over his rude remarks in silence. 3)Idioms used in formal situations: E.g. prior to——before It happened prior to my arrival. Possessed of——in a state of having The family is possessed of a large fortune. 4)Idioms used as slang: E.g. to put the screw on someone——to force someone to do as one wishes, especially by threatening Don?t put the screw on the young man. High on the hog——well and richly They have been living high on the hog. 5、The Difference between Idiomatic and Free Phrases Free phrases are ones in which the meaning can be guessed from their components while idiomatic phrases are phrases with a special meaning that cannot be guessed from the combination of actual words used. For example, the phrases blue book and cold comfort are idiomatic phrases because blue book is not a book with a blue cover, it refers to an official report printed by the British government; cold comfort means ?poor consolation. ? Blue sky and cold winter are free phrases. They denote that the sky is blue and the winter is cold. Sometimes the same phrasal verbs can be used as free phrases as well as idioms. In the sentence”We get up early everyday,” get up is a free phrase, while in the sentence ?The students will get up an English evening next month, ?get up is an idiom meaning ?to arrange? or …perform.? There are three types of phrasal verb: 1) Verb + adverb, as in: E.g. Please take the children in; it?s getting too cold out here. (Free phrase) Were you really taken in(=deceived) by an old trick like that?(Idiom) 2) Verb + preposition,as in: E.g. The quickest way to go about (=started) building a boat? (Idiom) 3) Verb + adverb + preposition, as in: E.g. You can put the shelf up with a hammer and nails. (Free phrase) I can?t put up with(=bear or stuffer) him; he?s always complaining. (Idiom) 6、Classification of English Idioms: There are five groups of idioms in English. 1、Idiomatic expressions with specific grammatical structures: (1) With specific morphological structures: 1)double genitive case of pronoun or noun: In the phrase a friend of mine, of mine is a double genitive case of a pronoun. But we cannot say …a friend of mine, of me,?although of me is a grammatically normal genitive case. 2) The superlative degree of an adjective in place of the comparative degree of it: E.g. “Who is the youngest of your two brothers”is an example in which the speaker prefers to say ?the youngest of your two brothers? than to say …the younger of your two brothers.? The conversion of one word class into another: 3)the conversion of one word class into another: In English idioms almost any word class can be converted into another word class: a)The conversion of adjective into verbs: E.g. Sorrow grayed his head. Here grayed is an English idiom where a noun is used as a verb. b)the conversion of nouns into verbs: E.g. He bridles his anger. Here bridles is an English idiom where a noun is used as a verb. c)the conversion of adverbs into nouns: The idiom the whys and (the) wherefores means ‘reasons for something.’E.g. I know very little about the whys and the wherefores of the situation. d) The conversion of prepositions into nouns: The idiom the ins and outs means …the detailed or complicated facts of something.? E.g. I know how to use computers, but I don?t really understand the ins and outs of how they work. (2)With specific syntactical structures: 1) adverbial clauses of concession joined by the conjunction” as”: E.g. Trouble as he was, he never exposed his difficulties to her. It can be seen from the above sentence that troubled as he was means …though he was troubled.?The conjunction as introduces the adverbial clause of concession in which the predicative stands first. The structure of predicative + as + subject + link verb is called a partial conversion. 2) The imperative sentence + the imperative sentence joined by a comma: E.g. Grasp all, lose all. Here the imperative sentence Grasp all is equal to an adverbial clause of condition joined by if. That is to say, Grasp all means …if you grasp all.? 3)the imperative sentence + the declarative sentence introduced by and: E.g. The imperative sentence Talk of the devil corresponds to an adverbial clause joined by if (If you talk of the devil,) whereas the declarative sentence …he will appear? expresses the result. So the whole sentence may mean …If you talk of the devil, he is sure to appear. 7、Phrases identified with the familiar parts of speech: (1) Noun phrase: 1) Adjective + noun: E.g. wet blanket——(a derogatory term ) a person who discourage others or prevents them from enjoying what they do Bad blood——angry feeling Black sheep——a worthless member of a of a respectable group 2) Noun + noun: E.g. Brain drain ——the movement of large numbers of high skilled or professional people from the country where they were trained to other countries where they can earn more money Loss leader ——an article sold at a low price in order to attract people into a shop. 3) Noun + and + noun E.g. Flesh and blood ——human beings, relatives Rank and file ——pricking tingling sensation in a limb recovering from numbness Son and heir ——the first son 4) Noun + preposition + noun: E.g. bed of bones ——a very thin person (or animal) A dog in the manager ——a person who does not wish others to enjoy what he cannot use for his own enjoyment 5) Noun +…s +noun: E.g. Cat?s cradle ——a game played with string round the fingers and passed from one finger to another to make various shapes The lion?s share ——the greatest part (of) (2) Adjective phrases: 1)adjective + and + adjective E.g. Blue and blue ——(having the skin) darkly discolored as the result of a blow High and mighty ——without help 2) Preposition + noun: E.g. On call ——ready for use;Ready to work at a command 3)adjective + preposition: E.g. Envious of ——feeling or showing envy Blessed with ——favored with; fortunate enough to possess 4) As + adjective + as: E.g. As black as jet As blind as a bat As cool as a cucumber 1)noun + noun: E.g. Blood and thunder ——full of meaningless action, violence (and noise) Wash and wear ——(of a fabric or garment) that needs little or no ironing after washing (3) Verbal phrases: E.g. First of all, verbal phrases may cover verb + preposition. They are called prepositional verbs. The patterns of verb + preposition can be subdivided into two groups. 1)intransitive verb + preposition E.g. To look after ——to take care of Who will look after the baby while they are out. To run to ——(of a person)to have enough money to pay for 2) Transitive verb + preposition: E.g. To put off ——to discourage (someone) from (something or someone) Don?t talk; it puts him off his game. To put at ——to guess (something ) to be (something) 8、The patterns of verb + adverb can be subdivided into two groups. 1) Intransitive verb + adverb: E.g. To call up ——to telephone I called up, but she was not there. To keep to ——to keep something private to oneself He kept the news to himself. 2)Transitive verb + adverb: E.g. To get down ——to swallow with difficulty Try to get the medicine down To make out ——to change He has never made over into a new man(=a completely different person). Thirdly, verbal phrases may also consist of verb + adverb + preposition. They are called prepositional phrasal verbs. 9、The patterns of verb + adverb + preposition can be also subdivided into two groups. 1) Intransitive verb + adverb + preposition: E.g. To come out with ——to say, especially suddenly or unexpectedly: to publish John came out with a foolish remark which annoyed his old uncle. 2) Transitive verb + adverb + preposition: E.g. To put up to ——to give (someone) the idea of (something or doing something, especially something bad) Who put you up to cheating? To put down ——to state that (something) is caused by (something) I put his temper down to his recent illness.. 10、Adverbial phrases: E.g. There are five kinds of adverbial phrases in English. 1) Noun +and + noun: Bag and baggage ——with all one?s belongings Body and soul ——completely; with all one?s entire self 2)adverb + and + adverb: E.g. It should be noted that the order of the two adverbs is fixed by usage and cannot be changed. Back and forth ——to and fro By and by ——before long; Soon 3)Preposition + noun E.g. Most adverbial phrases consist of preposition +noun As one man ——with the agreement of everyone By all means ——certainly 4)Noun + adverb (or –ed participle): E.g. All together ——altogether Sight unseen ——without a chance of seeing or examining 5)Preposition + noun + and + noun: E.g. through fair and foul ——at all time; in both bad and good fortune between the devil and the deep (blue) sea ——facing two choice, both of which are bad 11、Idioms of this kind have the following forms. 1) Transitive verb + noun (direct object): E.g. To balance the budget ——to make sure that no more money is giving out than coming in To sugar the pill ——to make something less unpleasant 2) Transitive verb + pronoun: E.g. To catch it ——to be in trouble with someone for doing something wrong To make it ——to arrive in time; to succeed 3) Transitive verb + object + prepositional phrase: E.g. To put one?s head into the lion?s mouth ——to take a great risk To wear one?s heart on one?s sleeve ——to expose, so that every knows one?s most intimate feelings 4) Transitive verb + noun + infinitive: E.g. To keep [save] one?s breath to cool one?s porridge ——to keep silent because talking will not help 5) Transitive verb + noun + -ing participle, or –ed participle, or adjective: E.g. To do one?s heart good ——to give satisfaction; to please To have one?s hands full ——to be very busy 6) Verb + adjective: E.g. To go away ——to work less hard To go red ——to blush 7) Adverbial clause: E.g. Until hell freezes over ——forever When hell freezes over ——never 8) The construction of the participle: E.g. Weather permitting ——if the weather is good enough other things being equal ——if conditions are or were the same or alike except for the point in question 9) Verb + noun + adverb: E.g. To give up the ghost ——to die 12、Idioms expressing greeting, surprise, praise, or criticism: Here are a number of habitual expressions in daily conversation which have a meaning that can not be inferred from the meaning of their individual words. Examples are: How are you doing? (An informal greeting to a friend, used in the United States) You don?t say (so). (an expression of slight surprise) Good for you. (an expression of praise) No business of yours. (an expression of criticism) ——It is not your business; and you are not to be told. The devil takes it! (Slang, an expression of strong displeasure) 13、Proverbs: Proverbs are a special kind of English idioms. They are rich in content and succinct in wording. According to their structures English proverbs have the following groups. (1) The elliptical sentence: E.g. First come, first served. ——People will be dealt with as they come, without special treatment for latecomers. No gains without pains. ——Nothing can be gained without effort. (2) The simple sentence: E.g. stitch in time saves nine. ——A small piece of work done now saves a lot of work later. Every dog has its day. ——Everyone is successful or happy at some time in their life. (3) The imperative sentence: E.g. …To grasp the nettle?is an example derived from the proverb …Grasp the nettle and it won?t sting you,?and is used as an idiom to indicate ?to attack a difficult situation or problem with bold determination,?as in the sentence, …we are wasting time in talk; let us grasp the nettle and start work.? (4) The compound sentence: E.g. You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink. ——You cannot force a person to do what he does not want to do. (5) The complex sentence: E.g. All that glitters is not gold. ——Not everything that seems good is gold. Strike while the iron is hot. ——Seize a good opportunity. 四、English Collocations 1、What is a collocation? A collocation is a natural combination of two words or more than two words that are closely joined together to express a particular meaning in speech and writing.. 2、The importance of leaning English collocations Learning Collocations is a good way to learn English both in speech and writing. There are four reasons to learning it. 1) Using collocations can give us the most natural way to say or write something. Smoking is strictly forbidden morn natural than Smoking is strongly forbidden. 2) Sometimes collocations have alternative ways of saying something, which may be more expressive or more precise: instead of repeating It was very cold and very dark, we may say It was bitterly cold and pitch dark. 3) Using collocations can improve our style in writing: instead of a big meal we say a substantial meal. 4) Learning collocations in groups an help us fix them in our memory. We may group collocations based on the same word. 3、The classification of English collocations: There are 14 types: (1) Type one: adjective + noun E.g. An intense (very great) light (强光) The intense sun (烈日) A bad light (不充足的亮度) (2)Type two: Quantifier + noun E.g. flash of lighting (一道闪电) A pool of light (一团光) (3)Type three:verb + noun E.g. Photographic paper (感应纸) (4) type four: noun + verb E.g. Nightlight glowed (to produce continuous light and sometimes heat) Moonlight gleaming (to shine softly) (5) type five: noun + noun E.g. Light level Light source (6) Type six: preposition + noun E.g. Against the light (depending on the light) By the light of (using the light of) (7) Type seven: noun + preposition E.g. The light from There is a light from the kitchen windows. (8) Type eight: verb + adverb E.g. He chose English words carefully. (9) Type nine: verb + verb E.g. You are able to choose it. Can they choose which one they want? (10) Type ten: verb + preposition E.g. She had to choose between the two men in her life. (11) Type eleven: verb + adjective E.g. The army experts made the bomb safe. The area has now declared safe. (12) Type twelve: adverb + adjective E.g. The area where you are living is perfectly safe. It is not entirely safe to go out at night. (13) Type thirteen: adjective + preposition E.g. Safe from, safe with They were safe from attack. Your money will be safe with me. (14) Type fourteen: short phrases including the headwords E.g. The speed of light, safe and sound, pick and choose Register used in English collocations 4、Register used in English collocations can be divided into four kinds. (1) Spoken English or informal English: E.g. The exam was dead (very) easy. You badly need (to need very much) a haircut. (2) Formal English: E.g. Cyclists must dismount (to get off their bicycles) here. At Beijing Airport he boarded a plane (to get onto a plane) to the United States. (3) Newspaper English: E.g. Airline slashes (to cut prices drastically) prices. (4) Business English: E.g. Many people submitted a tender for the new stadium. He went into partnership with his brother.