1
戴炜栋《简明英语语言学
教程
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》配套笔记
ChapterChapterChapter
Chapter
111
1
WhatWhatWhat
What
isisis
is
language?language?language?
language?
[A][A][A]
[A]
TheTheThe
The
originsoriginsorigins
origins
ofofof
of
languagelanguagelanguage
language
SomeSomeSome
Some
speculationsspeculationsspeculations
speculations
ofofof
of
thethethe
the
originsoriginsorigins
origins
ofofof
of
language:language:language:
language:
① TheTheThe
The
divinedivinedivine
divine
sourcesourcesource
source
The basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up
without hearing any language, then they would
spontaneously begin using the original god-given
language.
Actually, children living without access to human speech
in their early years grow up with no language at all.
② TheTheThe
The
natural-soundnatural-soundnatural-sound
natural-sound
sourcesourcesource
source
The bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive
words could have been imitations of the natural sounds
which early men and women heard around them.
The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by
humans when exerting physical effort, especially when
co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of
speech sounds.
Onomatopoeic sounds
③ TheTheThe
The
oral-gestureoral-gestureoral-gesture
oral-gesture
sourcesourcesource
source
It is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures
was developed as a means of communication.
The patterns of movement in articulation would be the
same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would
develop from waving hand.
④ GlossogeneticsGlossogeneticsGlossogenetics
Glossogenetics
(言语遗传学)
This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the
formation and development of human language.
Physiological adaptationdevelop naming
abilityinteractions and transactions
Physical adaptation:
Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.
Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus
making them very flexible.
The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible
tongue.
The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity
called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human
to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound
speech possible.
The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions
(tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left
hemisphere of the brain for most humans.
TwoTwoTwo
Two
majormajormajor
major
functionsfunctionsfunctions
functions
ofofof
of
language:language:language:
language:
Interactional: a social function of language.
Transactional: a function involving the communication
of knowledge and information
[B][B][B]
[B]
TheTheThe
The
propertiespropertiesproperties
properties
ofofof
of
languagelanguagelanguage
language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used
for human communication.
a) System: combined together according to rules
b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word
“pen” and the thing in the world which it refers to
c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages
d) Human: language is human-specific(交际性与信息
性)
CommunicativeCommunicativeCommunicative
Communicative
vs.vs.vs.
vs.
Informative:Informative:Informative:
Informative:
Communicative: intentionally using language to
communicate something
Informative: through/via a number of signals that are not
intentionally sent
Design features (unique properties): the defining
properties of human language that distinguish it from
any animal system of communication
① DisplacementDisplacementDisplacement
Displacement
(跨时空性,移位性)
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from
the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and
future time and to other locations)
② ArbitrarinessArbitrarinessArbitrariness
Arbitrariness
(任意性)
There is no logical or natural connection between a
linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.
While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely
arbitrary.
a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities:
onomatopoeic words
b) some compound words
③ ProductivityProductivityProductivity
Productivity
(能产性,创造性)
Language is productive in that it makes possible the
construction and interpretation of new signals by its
users. (Creativity or open-endedness)
④ CulturalCulturalCultural
Cultural
transitiontransitiontransition
transition
(文化传递性)
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis
(everyone was born with the ability to acquire a
language), the details of any language system are not
genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and
learnt.
⑤ DiscretenessDiscretenessDiscreteness
Discreteness
(可分离性)
Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.
⑥ DualityDualityDuality
Duality
(双重结构性,两重性或二元性)
Language is organized at two levels or layers
simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of
sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is
morpheme or word (double articulation)
The above six properties may be taken as the core
2
features of human language.
Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-
directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best
treated as ways of describing human language, but not as
a means of distinguishing it from other systems of
communication.
[C][C][C]
[C]
TheTheThe
The
developmentdevelopmentdevelopment
development
ofofof
of
writtenwrittenwritten
written
languagelanguagelanguage
language
① pictogramspictogramspictograms
pictograms
&&&
&
ideogramsideogramsideograms
ideograms
(象形文字和
表
关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf
意文字)
Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent
particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to
describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or
pictograms.
Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and
used other than its entity is considered to be part of a
system of idea-writing, or ideogram
Hieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字
② LogogramsLogogramsLogograms
Logograms
(语标书写法)
When symbols come to be used to represent words in a
language, they are described as examples of word-
writing, or logograms.
“Arbitrariness”—a writing system which was word-
based had come into existence.
Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000
years ago)
Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.
Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the
same writing system.
Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.
③ SyllabicSyllabicSyllabic
Syllabic
writingwritingwriting
writing
(音节书写法)
When a writing system employs a set of symbols which
represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described
as syllabic writing.
The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the
full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)
④ AlphabeticAlphabeticAlphabetic
Alphabetic
writingwritingwriting
writing
(字母书写法)
Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied
this rule
The Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from
the Phoenicians via the Romans
Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)
⑤ RebusRebusRebus
Rebus
writingwritingwriting
writing
Robus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol
used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the
spoken word used for that entity.
ChapterChapterChapter
Chapter
222
2
WhatWhatWhat
What
isisis
is
linguistics?linguistics?linguistics?
linguistics?
[A][A][A]
[A]
TheTheThe
The
definitiondefinitiondefinition
definition
ofofof
of
linguisticslinguisticslinguistics
linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of
language.
ProcessProcessProcess
Process
ofofof
of
linguisticlinguisticlinguistic
linguistic
study:study:study:
study:
① CertainCertainCertain
Certain
linguisticlinguisticlinguistic
linguistic
factsfactsfacts
facts
areareare
are
observed,observed,observed,
observed,
generalizationgeneralizationgeneralization
generalization
areareare
are
formed;formed;formed;
formed;
② HypothesesHypothesesHypotheses
Hypotheses
areareare
are
formulated;formulated;formulated;
formulated;
③ HypothesesHypothesesHypotheses
Hypotheses
areareare
are
testedtestedtested
tested
bybyby
by
furtherfurtherfurther
further
observations;observations;observations;
observations;
④ AAA
A
linguisticlinguisticlinguistic
linguistic
theorytheorytheory
theory
isisis
is
constructed.constructed.constructed.
constructed.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for
human communication.
[B][B][B]
[B]
TheTheThe
The
scopescopescope
scope
ofofof
of
linguisticslinguisticslinguistics
linguistics
GeneralGeneralGeneral
General
linguisticslinguisticslinguistics
linguistics
: the study of language as a whole
PhoneticsPhoneticsPhonetics
Phonetics
: the general study of the characteristics of
speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of
language) (How speech sounds are produced and
classified)
PhonologyPhonologyPhonology
Phonology
: is essentially the description of the systems
and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How
sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)
MorphologyMorphologyMorphology
Morphology
: the study of the way in which morphemes
are arranged to form words (how morphemes are
combined to form words)
SyntaxSyntaxSyntax
Syntax
: the study of those rules that govern the
combination of words to form permissible sentences
(how morphemes and words are combined to form
sentences)
SemanticsSemanticsSemantics
Semantics
: the study of meaning in abstraction
PragmaticsPragmaticsPragmatics
Pragmatics
: the study of meaning in context of use
SociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsSociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics
: the study of language with reference to
society
PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics
: the study of language with reference
to the workings of the mind
AppliedAppliedApplied
Applied
linguisticslinguisticslinguistics
linguistics
: the application of linguistics
principles and theories to language teaching and learning
AnthropologicalAnthropologicalAnthropological
Anthropological
linguistics,linguistics,linguistics,
linguistics,
neurologicalneurologicalneurological
neurological
linguistics;linguistics;linguistics;
linguistics;
mathematicalmathematicalmathematical
mathematical
linguistics;linguistics;linguistics;
linguistics;
mathematicalmathematicalmathematical
mathematical
linguistics;linguistics;linguistics;
linguistics;
computationalcomputationalcomputational
computational
linguisticslinguisticslinguistics
linguistics
[C][C][C]
[C]
SomeSomeSome
Some
importantimportantimportant
important
distinctionsdistinctionsdistinctions
distinctions
ininin
in
linguisticslinguisticslinguistics
linguistics
① PrescriptivePrescriptivePrescriptive
Prescriptive
vs.vs.vs.
vs.
DescriptiveDescriptiveDescriptive
Descriptive
② SynchronicSynchronicSynchronic
Synchronic
vs.vs.vs.
vs.
DiachronicDiachronicDiachronic
Diachronic
The description of a language at some point in time;
The description of a language as it changes through time.
③ SpeechSpeechSpeech
Speech
andandand
and
writingwritingwriting
writing
Spoken language is primary, not the written
④ LangueLangueLangue
Langue
andandand
and
paroleparoleparole
parole
Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)
Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by
all the members of a speech community
Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use
3
⑤ CompetenceCompetenceCompetence
Competence
andandand
and
performanceperformanceperformance
performance
Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky
(psychological)
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of
his language
ChapterChapterChapter
Chapter
333
3
PhoneticsPhoneticsPhonetics
Phonetics
andandand
and
phonologyphonologyphonology
phonology
[A][A][A]
[A]
TheTheThe
The
definitiondefinitiondefinition
definition
ofofof
of
phoneticsphoneticsphonetics
phonetics
Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language:
it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the
world’s languages.
Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds
are made, or articulated.
Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of
speech as sound waves in the air.
Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the
perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.
Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases
involving speaker identification and the analysis of
recorded utterances.
[B][B][B]
[B]
OrgansOrgansOrgans
Organs
ofofof
of
speechspeechspeech
speech
Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air
from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.
Voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air
from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes
through, creating a vibration effect.
All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).
The important cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity
The oral cavity
The nasal cavity
Lips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate
(velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of
tongue, vocal cords
[C][C][C]
[C]
OrthographicOrthographicOrthographic
Orthographic
representationrepresentationrepresentation
representation
ofofof
of
speechspeechspeech
speech
soundssoundssounds
sounds
Broad and narrow transcriptions
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)
Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols
only
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics
E.g.:
[l][li:f]-- a clear [l] (no diacritic)
[l][bild]--a dark [l] (~)
[l][helW]--a dental [l] ( )
[p][pit]--an aspirated [ph](h)
[p][spit]--an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)
[n][5bQtn]a syllabic nasal [n] (7)
[D][D][D]
[D]
ClassificationClassificationClassification
Classification
ofofof
of
EnglishEnglishEnglish
English
consonantsconsonantsconsonants
consonants
InInIn
In
termstermsterms
terms
ofofof
of
mannermannermanner
manner
ofofof
of
articulationarticulationarticulation
articulation
(the manner in
which obstruction is created)
① Stops:Stops:Stops:
Stops:
the obstruction is total or complete, and then
going abruptly
[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]
② Fricatives:Fricatives:Fricatives:
Fricatives:
the obstruction is partial, and the air is
forced through a narrow passage in the month
[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [W]/[T], [F]/[V], [h] (approximant)
③ Affricates:Affricates:Affricates:
Affricates:
the obstruction, complete at first, is
released slowly as in fricatives
[tF]/[dV]
④ Liquids:Liquids:Liquids:
Liquids:
the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to
escape through the passage between part or parts of the
tongue and the roof of the mouth
[l]a lateral sound; [r] retroflex
⑤ Glides:Glides:Glides:
Glides:
[w], [j] (semi-vowels)
Liquid + glides + [h] approximants
⑥ Nasals:Nasals:Nasals:
Nasals:
the nasal passage is opened by lowering the
soft palate to let air pass through it
[m], [n], []
ByByBy
By
placeplaceplace
place
ofofof
of
articulationarticulationarticulation
articulation
(the place where obstruction is
created)
① bilabials:bilabials:bilabials:
bilabials:
upper and lower lips are brought together
to create obstructions
[p]/[b], [w](velar)
② labiodentals:labiodentals:labiodentals:
labiodentals:
the lower lip and the upper teeth
[f]/[v]
③ dentals:dentals:dentals:
dentals:
the tip of the tongue and the upper front
teeth
[W]/[T]
④ alveolars:alveolars:alveolars:
alveolars:
the front part of the tongue on the alveolar
ridge
[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]
⑤ alveo-palatalsalveo-palatalsalveo-palatals
alveo-palatals
(palato-alveolars):(palato-alveolars):(palato-alveolars):
(palato-alveolars):
tongue and the
very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge
[F]/[V], [t]/[d]
⑥ palatal:palatal:palatal:
palatal:
tongue in the middle of the palate
[j]
⑦ velars:velars:velars:
velars:
the back of the tongue against the velum
[k], [g], [N] … [w]
⑧ glottals:glottals:glottals:
glottals:
the glottal is the space between the vocal
cords in the larynx
[h]
[E][E][E]
[E]
ClassificationClassificationClassification
Classification
ofofof
of
EnglishEnglishEnglish
English
vowelsvowelsvowels
vowels
Front i:
Central Back
Close i
` u:
u
4
① TheTheThe
The
highesthighesthighest
highest
positionpositionposition
position
ofofof
of
thethethe
the
tonguetonguetongue
tongue
: front, central,
back;
② TheTheThe
The
opennessopennessopenness
openness
ofofof
of
thethethe
the
mouthmouthmouth
mouth
: close, semi-close, semi-
open, open;
③ TheTheThe
The
roundnessroundnessroundness
roundness
(shape)(shape)(shape)
(shape)
ofofof
of
thethethe
the
monthmonthmonth
month
(the(the(the
(the
lips):lips):lips):
lips):
All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels
except [B]
All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels
④ TheTheThe
The
lengthlengthlength
length
ofofof
of
thethethe
the
soundsoundsound
sound
: long vowels & short
vowels
Larynx (tense) or (lax)
Monophthongs, diphthongs
Cardinal vowels
[F][F][F]
[F]
TheTheThe
The
definitiondefinitiondefinition
definition
ofofof
of
phonologyphonologyphonology
phonology
Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in
all human languages; how they are produced, how they
differ from each other, what phonetic features they
possess, how they can be classified, etc.
Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system
of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover
how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how
these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic
communication.
[G][G][G]
[G]
Phone,Phone,Phone,
Phone,
phoneme,phoneme,phoneme,
phoneme,
andandand
and
allophoneallophoneallophone
allophone
Phone: the different versions of the abstract unit –
phoneme
Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language,
placed in slash marks
Allophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of
one phoneme
[G] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and
minimal pair
Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the
same environments in two words and they distinguish
meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.
E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/
Complementary distribution: two or more than two
allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in
complementary distribution because they can not appear
at the same time, or occur in different environment,
besides they do not distinguish meaning.
Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in
every way except for one sound segment which occurs
Semi-close e E:
Semi-open E C:
Open A
B
Q R
B:
in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said
to form a minimal pair.
When a group of words can be differentiated, each one
from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in
the same position), then all of these words constitute a
minimal sets.
[H][H][H]
[H]
SomeSomeSome
Some
rulesrulesrules
rules
ininin
in
phonologyphonologyphonology
phonology
① sequentialsequentialsequential
sequential
rulesrulesrules
rules
Syllable
Onset rime
Nucleus coda
[Consonant] vowel [consonant(s)]
Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:
No1:
___/s/
___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/
___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/
No2:
The affricates [tF]/[dV] and the sibilants [s], [z], [F], [V]
are not to be followed by another sibilants.
② assimilationassimilationassimilation
assimilation
rulesrulesrules
rules
Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound
almost at the same time as the next is called co-
articulation.
Assimilation & elision effects
Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and
some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the
other
E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal
sound.
③ deletiondeletiondeletion