世界名画02

The Madonna Enthroned c.1308–11 „ TEMPERA AND GOLD ON PANEL „ 7 × 13ft (2.13 × 3.96m) MUSEO DELL’OPERA DEL DUOMO, SIENA, ITALY DUCCIO DI BUONINSEGNA Hailed as one of the greatest masterpieces of the age, Duccio’s painting helped to change the course of Italian art. For much of the medieval period, the prevailing influence in art came from the East. Byzantine devotional art was powerful and hieratic, but its ancient images were regarded as sacred and painters were expected to copy them faithfully. Originality, personal expression, and any form of realism were not encouraged. Led by Giotto (see pp.14–17) and Duccio, Italian masters gradually broke away from many of these constraints. In Duccio’s SCALE ?????? remarkable altarpiece there are signs of human warmth in many of the figures, there is genuine drama in the narrative scenes, and the draperies look far more fluid and natural than in their Byzantine counterparts. A monumental undertaking This imposing panel dominated the front of a huge altarpiece commissioned for Siena Cathedral. It represents the Maestà (Virgin in Majesty) or The Madonna Enthroned. Presiding over the Court of Heaven, surrounded by saints and angels, are the Virgin and Child. Siena’s four patron saints kneel at Mary’s feet, interceding for her favor. This is entirely appropriate, as the Virgin had been officially designated as the city’s patron and protector. The inscription beneath her throne reads, “Holy Mother of God, bestow peace on Siena.” Duccio was commissioned to produce the altarpiece by Siena’s civic authorities. A contract from 1308 has survived, indicating the lavish nature of the project. It is notable, for example, that the patrons pledged to provide all the artist’s materials. Accordingly, the Virgin’s robes were painted in ultramarine—a rare and expensive pure blue pigment made from lapis lazuli, only found in quarries in Afghanistan. By contrast, the blue coloring in the Rucellai Madonna in the Uffizi, Florence, which is attributed to Duccio, was composed of azurite, a much cheaper pigment that is slightly more turquoise in tone. The altarpiece was completed in 1311 and carried in a triumphal procession to the cathedral. At this stage, it was even more massive than it is now. In addition to the Maestà, there were originally scenes from the infancy of Jesus and the Death of the Virgin on the front, with further episodes from the life of Christ on the reverse. Unfortunately, the altarpiece was cut down in 1771 and some sections were lost or sold. DUCCIO DI BUONINSEGNA c.1255–c.1318/19 A Sienese painter, Duccio was one of the key figures in the development of early Italian art. He owes his fame to a single masterpiece—the magnificient altarpiece in Siena Cathedral. Very little is known about Duccio di Buoninsegna’s life. There is no reliable evidence about his birthplace or training. Some scholars have suggested that he may have been a pupil of Cimabue or Guido da Siena, but the first documentary reference to him dates from 1278. Records of several commissions have survived, but The Madonna Enthroned is the only work that can be attributed to him with absolute certainty. Hints about his character emerge from other documentary material, suggesting that he had a rebellious streak. He was fined for a variety of offenses—for refusing to do military service, for declining to swear an oath of fealty, and perhaps even for a breach of the regulations against sorcery. Whatever faults Duccio may have had, they were clearly outweighed by his prodigious talent. The Sienese authorities were anxious to secure his services for their most important commission and the reasons for this are plain to see. Along with Giotto, Duccio was instrumental in freeing Italian art from the limitations of its Byzantine sources. ?????? Visual tour KEY 1 THE VIRGIN AND CHILD Italian artists borrowed the theme of The Virgin Enthroned from Byzantine sources (see opposite). Early examples can be found in the mosaics at Ravenna in Italy, which for a brief time was the Western capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Virgin represents the Queen of Heaven, as well as the personification of Mother Church. In keeping with the normal medieval practice, she is depicted on a larger scale than the other figures, to underline her importance. The star on her cloak—another Eastern feature—refers to her title, “Star of the Sea.” 3 ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST This distinctive figure is John the Baptist. He can be identified by his unkempt appearance and his tunic made out of animal skins. These refer to his ascetic lifestyle, wandering in the desert, living off locusts and honey. John was frequently included in paintings of the “Court of Heaven” because of his status as the forerunner of Christ. He was also regarded as a symbolic link between the two parts of the Bible—the last of the Old Testament prophets and the first of the New Testament saints. 3 ST. ANSANUS The four figures in the foreground, kneeling before the Virgin, are the guardian saints of Siena: Ansanus, Savinus, Crescentius, and Victor. Their prominent position confirms that Duccio’s altarpiece was a civic commission as well as a religious one. This man is St. Ansanus. He came from a noble Roman family, as his aristocratic attire indicates, but he was betrayed by his father for preaching the Gospel. Condemned to death by Emperor Diocletian, Ansanus was thrown into a vat of boiling oil, before being beheaded. 1 ANGELS’ FACES Duccio followed tradition in his depiction of the figures surrounding the Virgin. Artists had developed their own conventions for the physical appearance of many of the better-known saints, based on the accounts of their lives. St. Paul, for example (on the left, immediately above St. Ansanus), was normally shown as a bald man with a dark beard. Angels, on the other hand, were frequently given the same, idealized faces. They were regarded as sexless beings, so painters invariably strove to make them appear androgynous. Sometimes their bodies were omitted altogether and they were represented by a head encircled by three pairs of wings. 1 3 6 4 5 2 7 1 2 3 4 ?????? 4 FEET AND ROBES Duccio’s career predates the development of mathematical laws of perspective. However, he did make some attempt to create a sense of depth in this picture by showing the feet and robes of some figures overlapping with the edge of the platform. In part, this was to draw attention to the inscriptions on the base, which identified some of the lesser-known saints. 2 ST. AGNES This is St. Agnes, a Roman virgin who was one of the many Christians to suffer martyrdom during Diocletian’s reign (284–305). She is carrying her traditional attribute, a young lamb. This association probably arose because of the similarity to her name (agnus is Latin for “lamb”). Agnes was a young girl, aged about 13, who was thrown into a brothel after refusing the attentions of a high-ranking official. 3 NATURALISTIC INTERACTION The Byzantine models for this type of picture were deliberately stiff and hieratic. By contrast, Western artists gradually adopted a more naturalistic approach. Rather than depicting rows of repetitive figures, Duccio introduced a degree of variety into the scene. His saints and angels exchange glances and appear to commune with each other. 1The Crucifixion, detail of panel from the back of The Madonna Enthroned, 1311, Museo Dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena, Italy 5 6 7 ON TECHNIQUE Duccio’s Virgin is loosely based on a Byzantine format known as Hodegetria (meaning “She who shows the Way”). Here, Mary gestures towards Jesus, indicating that he is the way to salvation. Both figures gaze at the viewer and there is no show of maternal affection. The original was said to be by St. Luke, so painters followed its format, as in the Virgin of Smolensk. Duccio was one of the first Italian artists to soften this approach, giving it a warmer, more naturalistic appearance. IN CONTEXT The back of the altarpiece, which is now displayed opposite the front, tells the story of Christ’s Passion in 26 scenes. Duccio made the Crucifixion, the climax of the story, larger than the other panels and gave it a central position. 1Virgin of Smolensk, c.1450, tempera on fabric, gesso, and wood, 53¾ × 41¼in (139 × 105cm), Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia ??????