工程造价专业毕业外文文献、中英对照

-本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 目China’sPathwaytoLow-carbonDevelopment文献、资料来源：JournalofKnowledge-basedInnovationinChina文献、资料发表（出版）日期：Vol.2No.3,2010院（部）：管理工程学院专业：工程造价外文文献China’sPathwaytoLow-carbonDevelopmentAbstractPurpose–ThepurposeofthispaperistoexploreChina’scurrentpolicyandpolicyoptionsregardingtheshifttoalow-carbon(LC)development.Design/methodology/approach–Thepaperusesbothaliteraturereviewandempiricalsystemsanalysisofthetrendsofsocio-economicconditions,carbonemissionsanddevelopmentofinnovationcapacitiesinChina.Findings–Theanalysisshowsthataholisticsolutionandco-benefitapproachareneededforChina’stransitiontoagreenandLCeconomy,andthat,especiallyfordevelopingcountries,itisnotenoughtohaveonlygoalsregardingmitigationandadaptation.Instead,aconcreteroadmaptowardsaLCfutureisneededthataddresseskeyissuesoftechnologytransfer,institutionalarrangementsandsharingthecostsinthecontextofaglobalclimateregime.Inthislight,itisarguedthatChinashouldadoptanapproachforlow-carbondevelopmentcentredoncarbonintensityreductionoverthenexttenyears.Originality/value–Thepaperthusprovidesauniquesummary,inEnglish,oftheargumentssupportingChina’scurrentlow-carboninnovationpoliciesfromoneoftheauthorsofthispolicy.Keywords：Carbon,Sustainabledevelopment,Environmentalmanagement,Governmentpolicy,ChinaPapertype–ResearchpaperClimatechangehasbecomethemostsignificantenvironmentanddevelopmentchallengetohumansocietyinthetwenty-firstcentury.Respondingtoclimatechangeisthecoretasktoachievingglobalsustainabledevelopment,bothfortodayandforaratherlongperiodoftimefromtoday.Internationalnegotiationsonpreventionofglobalwarmingandrelatedactionsnotonlyconcernthehumanlivingenvironment,butalsodirectlyimpactthemodernizationprocessofdevelopingcountries.Althoughtheprocessofglobalclimateprotectiondependsontheconsensusofourscientificawareness,politicalwills,economicinterests,society’slevelofacceptance,aswellasmeasuresadopted,alow-carbon(LC)developmentpathis,undoubtedly,thecriticalchoiceoffuturehumandevelopment.ThesciencebasisofclimatechangeanditsextendedpoliticalandeconomicimplicationsGlobalwarmingoftheclimatesystemhasbecomeanunequivocalfact.Accordingtoalargeamountofmonitoringdata,globalaveragelandsurfacetemperaturehasrisen0.748Coverthelastcentury(IPCC,2007a,b,c,d).Andtherateofrisinghasbeenspedup.Inthemeantime,globalaveragesealevelhasbeenconstantlyrisingtoo.GlobalwarminghasposedaseriouschallengetoChina’sclimate,environmentanddevelopment.Intheglobalcontextofclimatechange,China’sclimateandenvironmentarechangingtoo.Forinstance,inthelastcentury,thelandsurfaceaveragetemperaturehaswitnessedanobviousincrease;thoughtheprecipitationhasnotchangedtoomuch,itsinterdecadalvariationsandregionaldisparityhavebeenbig.Inthelast50years,therehavealsobeenmajorchangesinthefrequencyandintensityofextremeweatherandclimateevents(EditorialBoardofChina’sNationalAssessmentReportonClimateChange,2007).TheIPCC(2007a,b,c,d)integratedassessmentshowsthatsince1750,humanactivitieshavebeenamajorcauseofglobalwarming,whileinthelast50years,mostoftheglobalwarmingistheconsequenceofhumanactivities,withaprobabilityofmorethan90percent,inparticularfromthegreenhousegases(GHGs)emissionsduetothehumanuseoffossilfuels.Itisforecastthatbeforetheendofthetwenty-firstcentury,globalwarmingwillcontinue,andhowmuchthetemperaturewillrisedependsonwhatactionshumanswilltake.AccordingtheThirdWorkingGroupReportoftheIPCCfourthAssessment(IPCC,2007a,b,c,d),humanactionstomitigateclimatechangearefeasible,botheconomicallyandtechnologically.Actionstodeploykeymitigationtechnologiesinvarioussectors,adoptingpolicyandadministrativeinterferenceandshiftingthedevelopmentpathwaycouldallcontributegreatlytomitigationofclimatechange.WithChinabecomingtheworld’slargestCO2emitter,Chinafacesincreasingpressuretoreduceitsemissions.Beingaresponsiblecountry,Chinawilltakeactionstotackleclimatechange.Whendevelopingitsmitigationtarget,Chinawillconsidersuchfactorsaslevelofdevelopment,technologyknow-how,socialimpact,internationalimageandanewinternationalclimateregimeunderpinnedbyfairnessandeffectiveness.Chinawillmoveintoawin-windevelopmentpathtoachieveclimateprotection,qualityeconomicdevelopmentandotherrelatedpolicytargets.TodevelopLCeconomy–background,opportunitiesandchallengesAsillustratedabove,systematicsolutionsarerequiredtotackleclimatechange,duetothecomplexityoftheglobalclimatesystemaswellasitscoverageofbroadsocialandeconomicissues.Afternearlytwodecades’exploration,humansocietyhasrealizedthatinordertoeffectivelymitigateandadapttoclimatechange,wehavetofundamentallyreduceourrelianceonfossilfuels,whichmeansthatwehavetoachievetheshifttoaLCfuturefromthewayweproduceandconsumetohowglobalassetsareallocated(includingindustries,technology,capitalsandresources)andhowtheyaretransferred.FromtheperspectiveofthelimitedstoragecapacityofGHGsintheclimatesystemasaglobalpublicgood,bothahighlevelofhumanwisdomandanewinternationalclimateregimetodealwithmarketfailurearerequired,whichalsodemandstheparticipationofallstakeholdersandtogethertheyshallcharteranewdevelopmentpathway.Humansocietyhastopaytheeconomicpricestosolveclimatewarming.Thus,thethreeflexible“mechanisms”intheKyotoProtocol(jointimplementation,emissionstradingandcleandevelopmentmechanism)demonstrateameaningfulexperimentfortheAnnexIcountriestodecreasetheiremissionsreductioncosts.Whatisneededistomoveforwardfromwherewearenowtoexploreamoreuniversallyapplicablemechanismthatwouldeffectivelyallocatetheresourcesamongthekeyresponsiblestakeholders.TheLCdevelopmentpathembodiesanintegratedsolutionstrategy.ItaimstobuildupaLCsocietythroughLCeconomicdevelopment,triestoachievetherestructuringofallthekeyelementsdiscussedaboveandoffersnewopportunitiesforhumansocietyinresponsetoclimatechangethroughcollaborations.Asafundamentalvenuetocoordinatesocialandeconomicdevelopment,guaranteeenergysecurityandrespondtoclimatechange,developmentofLCeconomyisgraduallygainingtheneededconsensusfrommoreandmorecountries.Thoughwithoutafixedacademicdefinition,thecoreofdevelopingaLCeconomyistoestablishadevelopmentpathwaythathashigh-energyefficiency,low-energyconsumptionandlowemissions.Underafairandeffectiveinternationalclimateregime,theefficiencyofenergyexploration,generation,transmission,transformationanduseisexpectedtobeincreasedgreatlyandenergyconsumptiongreatlyreduced,sothatthecarbonintensityinenergysupplyforeconomicgrowthisdramaticallyreduced,alongwiththecarbonemissionsfromenergyconsumption.Throughincreasingcarbonsinkandusingcarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)technology,theGHGemissionsfromfossilfuelsthatarehardtoreducecanbeoffset.Inthemeanwhile,throughtheestablishmentofreasonableandfairtechnologytransferandfinancialsupportmechanisms,developingcountriescanundertakethecostsofshiftingtowardsLCpatternswhilebeingatthelowestendofthevaluechainintheinternationaltradestructure.TheperspectivesofdevelopmentvalueneedtobechangedinordertopromotethetransitionofconsumptiontowardsasustainableandLCfuture.Whatneedstobeclarifiedisthat,duetothedifferencesofvariouscountries’socialandeconomiccontexts,thestartingpointstowardsaLCfuturemightvary,asmightthepursuedgoals.Fordevelopedcountriesthataretakingtheleadtocommittoreductiontargets,theirfirstobjectivetodevelopaLCeconomyistoreduceemissions.Fordevelopingcountrieswhoseeconomiesarestillatafastgrowingstage,theirfirstpriorityisdevelopmentandtheirpercapitaenergyconsumptionisexpectedtocontinuetogrow.Theobjectivesshallbemultiple.Atthecurrentstage,itishardtomainstreamtheclimatechangepoliciesdomestically.Whatispossibleistoreduceenergyintensityandincreasecarbonproductivityinordertograduallydecoupleeconomicgrowthandcarbonemissions.WhatisequallyimportantisthatthereexistmanyuncertaintiesindevelopmentofLCeconomy,particularlyfordevelopingcountries.Tremendousdifficultiesandbarriersneedtobeovercomeintheprocess.Attheinternationallevel,theuncertaintiesofdevelopingLCeconomyinclude:Costsandmarkets–atthismomentwecouldhardlybeabletoestimatethewholecoststhatarerequiredtodevelopaLCeconomy.ItisfarfrombeingassimpleascalculatingthedirectcostsofadoptingLCtechnologies.ItalsotakestimetoestablishLCtechnologyandproductmarkets,especiallynow,whentheglobalfinancialcrisishashiteveryonehardandwhennoonecangiveagoodestimateaboutwhentheworldeconomycouldturnaroundandrecover;thoughmanyexpertsandscholarsholdthattheresponsetothelong-termclimatechangecouldbringnewopportunitiestoeconomicrecovery(Stiglitz,2009;Wang,2008b).WhatmakesthesituationmorecomplicatednowishowtheUSA,China,IndiaandotherkeycountrieswouldparticipateintheestablishmentofaLCmarket.Establishmentofafairinternationalclimateregimeandmid-tolong-termtargetstotackleclimatechange–thedevelopmentofaLCeconomyalsodependsontheinternationalclimatenegotiationprocessanditsresult,ofwhichthemostcriticalelementiswhetheritwillresultinlegallybindingglobalemissionsreductiontargetsandthecorrespondingmechanismsoftechnologytransferandfinancialsupport,evenifthiswasnotestablishedatCopenhagen.Todate,eventhoughsomeEUcountrieshaveachievedthedecouplingofeconomicgrowthandcarbonemissions,LCeconomyhasnotgenerateduniversallyapplicable,successfulexperiences;andwhatthoseexperiencesmeantodevelopingcountriesstillneedstobefiguredoutandtestedovertime.Fordevelopingcountries,thedifficultiesandbarrierstodevelopingaLCeconomyareobvious,includingcurrentstageofdevelopment,internationaltradestructure,economiccosts,inadequatemarket,technologydiffusionsystem,institutionalarrangement,incentivepolicyandmanagementsystem.Fromthehistoricevolutionoftherelationshipbetweeneconomicgrowthandcarbonemissionsinindustrializedcountries,mostcountriesexperiencedsuccessivelytheinvertedU-shapecurvesofcarbonintensity,percapitacarbonemissions,andthentotalcarbonemissions.Butdifferentcountriesorregionsvarygreatlyineconomicdevelopmentlevelorpercapitagrossdomesticproduct(GDP)relativetothecarbonemissionspeak.Thisshowsthattheredoesnotexistasingle,exactturningpointbetweeneconomicgrowthandcarbonemissions.Ifyouexaminethosecountriesorregionsthathavepassedthecarbonemissionspeak,roughly24-91years,onaverage55years,arerequiredbetweenthepeakofcarbonemissionsintensityandthatofpercapitacarbonemissions.SomedrivingforcestoreachdifferentpeakshavebeenshowninFigure1intermsofexperienceinthepastandscenarioanalysisinthefuture.Thepointis,withoutstrongmandatoryemissionsreductionmeasuresandexternalsupport,developingcountrieswillneedrelativelylongertimetoreachthepeakofcarbonemissionsgrowthandthenstabilizeanddecreaseStrategicmeasuresOnthebasisoftheabove-mentionedanalysis,theLCpathwithChinesecharacteristicsshallalsofocusongraduallysettingup“resource-efficient,environment-friendlyandLC-oriented”society.GuidedbyLCdevelopmentstrategyanditstargets,effortsshallbemadetodeveloprelevantinstitutionalarrangements,improvemanagementsystems,stipulatedevelopmentplans,accumulateexperiencefromdemonstrationsandpilots,andpushforwardLCeconomicdevelopmentinanorderlymanner,sothatasustainableandLCfuturecanbeshapedforChina.FourmajoraspectsarethekeystartingpointstostructureaLCsocialandeconomysystem:(1)Establishalegalandregulatoryframeworkaddressingclimatechangeandimprovingthemacro-managementsystem.Thelegislativefeasibilityandlegalmodelof“LawtoAddressClimateChange”shallbedebatedandarticulated.Also,inthelegislationprocessofotherlawsandregulations,articlesrelatedtoresponsetoclimatechangeshallbeincluded.Forinstance,atechnicalguidelineofstrategicenvironmentalassessmentshallincludearticlesrelatedtoclimatechangeimpactassessment.Alegalandregulatoryframeworkofrespondingtoclimatechangewillgraduallyemerge.OwingtothefactthatChina’sadministrativeauthorityinchargeofclimatechangeremainsweakandlackscapability,first,theLeadingGroupoftheState’sResponsetoClimateChangeandEnergySavingandPollutionReductionWorkshallplayitsfullroleswhenamoreflexibleanddiversedepartmentalcoordinationmechanismisestablished;andthegroupshallputforwardstrategicmeasurerecommendationsinresponsetoclimatechange.Second,capacitybuildingshallbestrengthenedandmoreadministrativeresourcesshallbeallocated,sothatbetterpreparationismadeforthenextroundofgovernmentrestructuringtofurtherimprovetheadministrativelevelofthegovernmentdepartmentinchargeofclimatechange.(2)Establishlong-actingmechanismframeworkofLCdevelopmentandstipulaterelatedLCdevelopmentpoliciesinanorderlymanner.InstitutionalinnovationisthekeytoembarkingonaLCdevelopmentpath.Chinashallbecomemorepragmaticindevelopingalong-termincentivemechanismandpolicymeasuresthatareinfavourofenergysaving,environmentalprotectionandclimateprotection,guidedbythebalanceddevelopmentframeworkandachievetheLCtransitionatgovernmentandbusinesslevels.Atthismoment,manyregionsandcitieshaveexpressedtheirinterestandenthusiasmtowardLCdevelopment.AswellasthecomplexityofLCeconomyandthediversityofmodels,relatedguidelinesshallberolledouttoguidethemacropolicyandregulatethecontent,model,directionofdevelopmentandassessmentindicatorsystemofaLCeconomy.ExperiencesandlessonsfromothercountriescanbeexaminedandlearnedinordertomoveforwardLCdevelopmentinanorderlyandhealthymanner.Specialplanningandprogramsshallbedevelopedatnationallevel,andthensomerepresentativeregionsandcities,aswellassomekeysectors,canbeselectedforLCpilotingpurpose.Whenthemarketmatures,LCmarketsshallbesetupthroughregulatingthepricingmechanismandstipulatingfiscalandincentivepolicies.(3)StrengthencollaborationandestablishahealthyLCtechnologysystem.TechnologicalinnovationisthecoreelementinLCdevelopment.Governmentshalladoptintegratedmeasurestoofferarelaxedandfavourablepolicyenvironmentforbusinessdevelopmentandcreateandprovidebetterinstitutionalguaranteesfortechnologicalinnovation.Asaresult,theR&Danddiffusionofhigh-energyefficiencyandLCemissionstechnologiescanbestrengthenedinbothproductionandconsumption.AdiverseLCtechnologysystemwillbegraduallybuiltforenergysavingandenergyefficiency,cleancoalandcleanenergy,renewableenergyandnewenergy,aswellascarbonsinks.Thelevelofcommercializationwillbeimproved.Thus,astrongtechnologicalfoundationwillbeprovidedforLCtransitionandshiftinthewaysofeconomicgrowth.Chinashallalsofurtherstrengtheninternationalcollaboration,notonlythroughtheclimate-relatedinternationalcooperationmechanismtoimport,absorbandadoptadvancedtechnologiesfromothercountries,butmoreimportantly,throughparticipatinginthestipulationofrelatedinternationalsectoralenergyefficiencystandardsandstandardofcarbonintensity,aswellasbenchmarking.ChinacouldconsidervoluntaryormandatorybenchmarkingmanagementtoelevatesomekeyLCtechnologies,equipmentandproductstointernationalleadershiplevel.(4)Establishcollaborationmechanismwithallstakeholders’participation.Low-carbondevelopmentisnotjustforgovernmentorbusiness;instead,itrequiresallrelatedstakeholders’aswellasthewholesociety’sparticipation.Owingtothefactthatthereexistsomeinadequaciesinthegeneralpublic’sawarenessofclimatechange,publicity,educationandtrainingarerequiredincombinationwithpolicyincentivestotransformthepublic’sperceptionandthinking,increasethepublic’sawarenessonresponsetoclimatechangeandgraduallyreachconsensusonfocusingonLCconsumptionbehavioursandmodels.Jointactionswithallthestakeholdersareneededtoresistthepotentialrisksfromclimatechange.References：EIA(2008),InternationalEnergyOutlook,EIA,USDOE,Washington,DC.He,J.(2008),“Addressingclimatechangethroughdevelopinglowcarboneconomy”,KeynoteSpeechinSino-DanishForumonClimateChange,BeijingOctober23.IEA(2008),WorldEnergyOutlook2008,IEA,Paris.IPCC(2007a),ClimateChange2007:Impacts,AdaptationandVulnerability,availableat:.ipcc.chIPCC(2007b),ClimateChange2007:MitigationofClimateChange,availableat:.ipcc.ch(​http:​/​​/​www.ipcc.ch​)IPCC(2007c),ClimateChange2007:SynthesisReport,availableat:.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-(​http:​/​​/​www.ipcc.ch​/​pdf​/​assessment-​)report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdfIPCC(2007d),ClimateChange2007:ThePhysicalScienceBasic,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge.Jiang,K.(2007),“AscenarioresearchonChina’sgreenhousegasemissions”,InternationalClimateChangeRegime:AStudyonKeyIssuesinChina,ChinaEnvironmentalSciencesPress,Beijing,pp.8-24.Stiglitz,J.E.(2009),“Threewaystoglobaleconomicrecovery”,availableat:news.sina.(​http:​/​​/​news.sina.com​).cn/pl/2009-01-13/0.shtmlWang,Y.(2008a),“AlowcarbonpathwithChinesecharacteristics”,Greenleaf,No.8,pp.46-52.Wang,Y.(2008b),SummaryofSino-DanishForumonClimateChange:NottoDelayClimateChangeProgressbyFinancialCrisis,availableat:.p5w.net/news/gjcj/200810/(​http:​/​​/​www.p5w.net​/​news​/​gjcj​/​200810​/​​)t1981142.htm中文翻译：中国低碳发展的途径摘要：目的：这篇论文的是探索中国现存的政策和针对低碳发展政策的其他可选方向。 计划 项目进度计划表范例计划下载计划下载计划下载课程教学计划下载 、方法论、方式：本论文用到了文献综述和实验系统分析了社会经济条件趋势的，碳的释放和中国创新能力发展。调查结果：分析结果显示，中国绿色和低碳经济的过渡需要一个全面的解决方案和共同利益的方式，特别是对发展中国家，仅仅以缓解和适应去对待作为唯一目标是不足的，相反，技术转变的关键问题是需要一个对低碳未来具体的规划图，，体制安排和分担在全球气候 制度 关于办公室下班关闭电源制度矿山事故隐患举报和奖励制度制度下载人事管理制度doc盘点制度下载 方面的费用。有鉴于此，有人认为中国应采取低碳发展的方针，未来十年围绕在降低碳强度上。创意、价值：因此，本文作者之一用英文提供了论据支持中国目前的低碳技术创新的政策独特论点。关键词：碳、可持续发展、环境管理、政府政策、中国论文类型：研究型论文气候变化已成为二十一世纪的人类社会最重要的环境和发展的挑战。应对气候变化是实现全球可持续发展的核心任务，既是为了当下也要考虑未来。防止全球变暖和相关的行动的谈判，不只是关注人类的生存环境，而且还直接影响到发展中国家的现代化进程。尽管全球气候保护的进程取决于我们的科学意识的共识，政治意愿，经济利益，社会的接受程度，以及采取的措施，低碳（LC）的发展道路，无疑是人类未来发展的关键选择。气候变化及其延伸的政治和经济影响的科学依据全球气候系统的变暖已经成为一个明确的事实。根据大量的监测数据，在过去一个世纪全球平均地表温度上升0.740C（IPCC，2007年A，B，C，D）。上升的速度已经加快。在此期间，全球平均海平面不断上升。全球变暖已经构成了对中国的气候，环境和发展的严峻挑战。在全球气候变化的背景下，中国的气候和环境正在发展变化。例如，在上个世纪，已经目睹了地表平均温度明显的增加，但降水并未改变太多，其年代变化和区域差距已经很大。在过去50年中，在极端天气和气候事件的频率和强度上也出现了重大变化（中国国家评估报告气候变化的编辑委员会，2007）。政府间气候变化专门委员会（2007年A，B，C，D）的综合评估显示，自1750年以来，人类活动是全球变暖的主要原因，而在过去50年中，全球气候变暖的大部分是与人类活动的后果，超过90％，在特定的温室气体（GHG）因·人类使用化石燃料排放的概率。据预测，二十一世纪结束之前，全球变暖将继续，气温将上升多少取决于什么将采取行动的人。根据IPCC第四次评估（“监理会”，2007年A，B，C，D），人类的行动，以减轻气候变化是可行的，既有经济上和技术上的第三个工作组的报告。行动部署在各个领域的关键减缓技术，采取的政策和行政干预，转移的发展途径，都可以大大有助于减缓气候变化。随着中国成为世界上最大的二氧化碳排放国，中国正面临着越来越大的压力，以减少其排放量。作为一个负责任的大国，中国将采取行动应对气候变化。当发展中国家的减排目标，中国将考虑这样的发展水平，技术诀窍，社会影响力，国际形象和新的国际气候制度的公平性和有效性的基础因素。中国将成为一个双赢的发展道路，实现气候保护，经济发展质量和其他相关政策目标。要制低碳会经济--背景、机遇和挑战如上所述，系统化的解决方案都需要应对气候变化，因全球气候系统的复杂性，以及其广泛的社会覆盖面和经济问题。经过近二十年的探索，人类社会已经意识到，为了有效地减轻和适应气候变化，我们必须从根本上减少我们对化石燃料的依赖，这意味着我们必须要通过转变全球资产的分配（包括行业，技术，资金和资源）以及它们的转移的生产和消费的方式实现低碳的未来。GHGs作为一项全球公益事业，既是高层次人类智慧和一个新的国际气候制度，以应对市场失灵的需要，这也要求所有利益相关者的参与他们将被授予新的低碳发展途径。人类社会已经付出经济的代价，以解决气候变暖。因此，三个灵活的“机制”，在“京都议定书”（联合履行，排放贸易和清洁发展机制）示为附件一国家的有意义的实验，以降低其减排成本。我们需要的是更加深入的探索，比我们现在的探索更为普遍适用的机制，主要负责利益相关者之间的资源有效地分配。立法的发展道路，体现了一个综合的解决方案战略。它旨在通过低碳经济发展建立一个低碳社会，试图实现上面讨论的所有关键要素的重组，并为人类社会通过合作应对气候变化提供了新的机遇。作为协调经济和社会发展的一个基本的领域，保证低碳经济发展的能源安全和应对气候变化，逐渐成为越来越多的国家所需要的共识。虽然没有一个固定的学术定义，一个低碳经济发展的核心是建立具有高能源效率，低能耗，低排放的发展途径。一个公平和有效的国际气候制度下，能源勘探，发电，输电，改造和使用效率将会大大提高，能耗大大降低，因此，在为经济增长而使用的碳能源供应强度大大降低，从而能碳排放量也大大降低。通过增加碳汇和使用碳捕获和储存（CCS）技术，努力减少化石燃料的温室气体排放量。在此同时，通过建立合理和公平的技术转变和资金支持机制，发展中国家可以以国际贸易结构中的价值链的最低端的成本采取向低碳模式转变。需要改变以促进消费的过渡，实现可持续发展和低碳未来的发展价值的角度。需要澄清的是，由于各国社会和经济背景的差异，对一个低碳未来的出发点或者追求的目标可能有所不同。对于发达国家，带头承诺减排目标，他们低碳经济发展的首要目标是减少温室气体排放。对于发展中国家，其经济仍然在快速增长的阶段，他们的首要任务是发展，所以他们的人均能源消费量预计将继续增长。目标应是​​多方面的。在目前阶段，对于主流气候变化的国政策它是很难的。怎样才能减少能源强度和提高碳生产率，从而逐步脱钩的经济增长和碳排放量。同样重要的是，低碳经济发展中存在许多不确定因素，特别是对发展中国家。在此过程中需要克服巨大的困难和障碍。在国际层面上，低碳经济发展的不确定因素包括：成本和市场——在这一刻，我们也难以真正能够估计一个低碳经济发展所必需的全部费用。只计算低碳技术的直接成本太过于简单了。它也需要时间来建立低碳技术和产品市场，尤其是现在，当全球金融危机已经触及每个人努力时，没有人能预计世界经济能否扭转和恢复良好，虽然许多专家和学者举行长期气候变化的响应，可以带来新的机遇，以经济复（stiglitz，2009;wang，2008b）。是什么使局势更加复杂，现在是美国，中国，印度和其他主要国家将如何参与建立一个低碳市场。建立一个公平的国际气候制度和中期长期的目标，以应对气候变化——低碳经济的发展，也取决于在国际气候谈判进程及其结果，其中最关键的因素是，它是否会产生具有法律约束力的全球减排目标和相应的机制，技术和资金支持，即使没有在哥本哈根上建立。迄今为止，尽管一些欧盟国家已经实现了经济增长和碳排放的脱钩，低碳经济也不会产生普遍适用的，成功的经验，这些经验对发展中国家而言意味着什么仍需要揣摩和测试。对于发展中国家来说，开发一个低碳经济的困难和障碍是显而易见的，包括目前的发展阶段，国际贸易结构，经济成本，市场不足，技术扩散体系，制度安排，激励政策和 管理制度 档案管理制度下载食品安全管理制度下载三类维修管理制度下载财务管理制度免费下载安全设施管理制度下载 。从工业化国家经济增长和碳排放之间的关系的历史演变中，大多数国家先后经历碳排放强度，人均碳排放量，碳排放总量倒U形曲线。但不同国家或地区在经济发展水平或人均国生产总值（GDP）的相对碳排放峰值相差很大。这表明，不存在一个单一的，确切的转折点之间的经济增长和碳排放。如果检查已经通过这些国家或地区的碳排放量的高峰期，需要大约24-91年，平均55年之间的碳排放强度高峰和人均碳排放量。，达到不同的峰值的一些驱动力已在显示过去经历和未来情景的分析图1中表示出来了。重点是，没有强大的强制性减排措施和外部支持，发展中国家将需要相对较长的时间，以达到碳排放量的增长高峰，然后稳定和减少。战略措施上述分析的基础上，具有中国特色的低碳路径也应逐步建立“资源节约型，环境友好型和低碳为本的社会”的重点。在低碳发展战略和目标的指导下，应努力制定相关的制度安排，完善管理制度， 规定 关于下班后关闭电源的规定党章中关于入党时间的规定公务员考核规定下载规定办法文件下载宁波关于闷顶的规定 发展计划，从示和试点积累经验，并有条不紊地推进低碳经济发展，塑造一个可持续发展和低碳的中国的未来。构建一个低碳社会和经济体制的主要出发点有四个方面：（1）建立一个法律和监管框架以应对气候变化和改善宏观管理体制。“用法律解决气候变化”的立法的可行性和法律模式应进行辩论和阐述。此外，在其他法律法规的立法进程里，应对气候变化相关的条款应被列入。例如，战略环境评价的技术指标应包括有关气候变化影响评估的文章。一个应对气候变化的法律和监管框架将逐渐浮出水面。中国的气候变化主管行政机关仍然薄弱，缺乏能力，首先，国家的气候变化和节能减污减排工作的领导班子应发挥其充分的作用时，更加灵活和多样化的部门建立协调机制;小组应当在应对气候变化的远期战略措施上提出建议。其次，能力建设应加强，应分配更多的行政资源，以便为下一轮政府机构改革更好的准备，，以进一步提高负责气候变化的政府部门的行政级别。（2）低碳发展建立长效机制的框架，并规定有序低碳发展的相关政策。制度创新是着手低碳发展道路上的关键。中国应制定一个长期的激励机制和政策措施，有利于更加务实的节能，环保和气候保护，均衡发展框架的指导，实现在低碳过渡政府和业务水平。此时，许多地区和城市已表示他们对低碳发展的兴趣和热情。有关准则，以及低碳经济的复杂性和多样性模型，均表示应推出的宏观政策指导和规的容，模式，