语言学概论课后参考杨信彰

Charpter1a.Thissentencemayhavethreeinterpretations:1)Herolledfromsidetosideinhisgrave.2)Hereturnedhisgrave.3)Hehandedinhisgrave.b.Therearetwointerpretationstothissentence:1)Theygavepreferencetobothyoungmenandyoungwomen.2)Theygavepreferencetowomenandyoungmen.Unitsthathavereference:I,saw,Mary,went,thelibrary.Unitsthatindicatestructure:when,to.a.Thissentenceisgrammatical,butisnonsensical.b.Thissentenceisungrammaticalandnonsensical.c.Thisisagoodsentence.d.Thisisagoodsentence.a.Thissignisasymbol.Itmeanswewillhavegoodluck.Iknowitfrommyculturalbackground,becausetheChinesecharacter"福"means"luck"andthecolorredsymbolizes"goodness".TheChinesemeaningof"upsidedown"is"倒",whichhasthesimilarpronunciationof"到(arrive)".Thus,whenthecharacter"福"isputupsidedown,itmeansthatluckarrives.b.Thissignisanicon.Itmeansnosmoking,andIknowitfromthepicture.c.Thissignisamixtureofasymbolandaicon.Itmeansthat"parking"isonlyallowedfordisabledpeople.Ithinkthehouseisonfirebecausesmokeisaindexoffire.Tothephysician,itmeansthatthemanhasgotafever.Ithinkso,butnotexactly,becausethedifferenceoftheconsonantsdoesnotmeanthebirdindifferentplacescriesdifferently.accordingtothearbitrarinesstheory,theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalresemblancetotheirmeaning.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.Thus,thenameXiaoLongisjustalabelfortheson.However,inChineseculturedragonwasthesymbolfortheemperor.Thus,thenamemayhavecertainassociativemeanings.No.Thespeakerofalanguage,basedupontheconventionestablishedinthespeechcommunity,associateslinguisticsignswiththingsandconcepts.Inpeople'smind,"pig"standsforfoolishnessandlaziness.IfInameitPigHairShampoo,noonewillbuyit.Wordsarearbitraryinform,buttheyarenotrandomintheiruse.Althoughthelinkbetweenformandmeaningisarbitrary,thereexistedcertainrelationshipbetweenthem,whichcanbecalledrules.Theindividualdoesnothavethepowertochangeasigninanywayonceithasbecomeestablishedinthelinguisticcommunity.1.Iprefertousethespokenlanguage.Inasupermarket,thespokenlanguageismuchmoreconvenientforpeopletocommunicatewitheachother.Peopledonothavethetimeandnecessitytousewrittenlanguageincommunication.Ithinklisteningandspeakingshouldcomefirst.Theprimarymediumoflanguageissound,andlanguageisprimarilyvocal.What'smore,childrencanlearntolistenandspeakaforeignlanguagemorequicklythantheyreadandwrite.No,Idon'tagreewiththispointofview.Languageishumanspecific,sohumansanddogscannotcommunicatewitheachother.Aparrotonlycansaywhatitistaught.Itcannotformaninfinitesetofutterancesfromafiniteuseofunits.So,aparrottalkingcannotbeequatedwithhumanlanguage.Thatisonlytheresultofthestimulus-responsetraining.Humanlanguageisprimaryoveranimalcommunicationinthefollowingaspects:1)Humanhastheabilitytorefertothingsfarremoteintimeandspace.Incontrast,itmaybeimpossibleforananimaltoconveysuchability.2)Humanhastheabilitytoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofnovelutterances,butnoanimalcancommunicatecreativelywithanotheranimal.3)Learningismuchmoreimportantasafactorinhumanlanguagethaninanimalcommunication.4)Humanlanguagestructureandlanguageusearevastlymorecomplexthananyanimalcommunicationsystem.5)Animalcommunicationsystemsareclosed-ended,whereashumanlanguagesareopen-ended.TheadvancedtechnologysuchastelephonesandtheInternetmakeshumancommunicationbecomemuchmoreconvenientandfrequent.Peoplecancommunicatewithothersinremoteplacesfreely.Theremayexistseveralcauses:1)Thesendercannotexpresshimselforherselfclearly.2)Thereceivercannotunderstandwhatthesendersaid.3)Thereceiverisunwillingtocommunicatewiththesender.4)Thereexistsmisunderstandingbecauseofthedifferentculturalbackgroundofthesenderandthereceiver.Wemustpaykeyattentiontolearningtheknowledgeofthewaysofthinking,actingandspeakingofalanguage,fordifferencesinthiskindofknowledgemaycausetroubleininterculturalcommunication.a.Physiologicalfunctionb.Performativefunctionc.Phaticfunctiond.InformativefunctionPeoplelikepoetrybecausepeoplecanenjoytherhythmandthemelodyofcertaincombinationsofsoundsinthepoetry.Andmostcreativeusesoflanguageinthepoetrycanprovidepeopleconsiderablepleasurethroughthegenerationofpuns,paradoxes,ambiguitiesandmetaphors.Imaynotsayanything,butmovethedeskaway.Generalfunctionsrefertotheparticularindividualusesoflanguagewhilstmetafunctionsrefertothelarger,moregeneralpurposesunderlyinglanguageuse.No.AccordingtoHalliday,everysentenceinatextismultifunctionalandhasthreemetafunctionssimultaneously:ideational,interpersonalandtextualfunctions.Halliday'sfunctionaltheoryemphasizestherelationshipbetweenlanguagestructureandthelanguagefunctionsinsociallife,whilethetraditionalgrammaremphasizestheformsofthesentence.Iagreetotheevolutionarytheorywhichtendstobelievethatmanevolvedfromlowerformsoflife,andsodidlanguage.Thisisascientificapproachtotheoriginoflanguageasitisbasedonawiderangeofstudiesoveryearsbybiologists,anthropologists,psychologists,neurologists,primatologistsandlinguists.Withmanysignificantchangessinceitsearlyintroduction,theevolutionarytheoryshowsustheoriginoflanguagefromvariousaspects,suchastheorganicevolution,environmentalfactors.轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪Onomatopoeticwordsareimitationsofthesoundsofnature,andemotionalejaculationsofpain,fear,surprise,pleasure,anger,etc.Accordingtotheinventiontheory,onomatopoeticwordsformthebasisoflanguage,oratleastthecoreofthebasicvocabulary.Usually,therearetwomainwaysofclassifyinglanguages:thegenetic(orgenealogical)andthetypological.Thehistoricalclassificationisbasedontheassumptionthatlanguageshavedivergedfromacommonancestor.Thiscriteriaistoresearchintothehistoryandrelatednessoflanguages.Ontheotherhand,thetypologicalclassificationisbasedonacomparisonoftheformalsimilaritieswhichexistbetweenlanguages.Itisanattempttogrouplanguagesintostructuraltypes,onthebasisofphonology,grammar,orvocabulary,ratherthanintermsofanyrealorassumedhistoricalrelationship.Currently,wecannotsaythatalllanguagesintheworldderivedfromonecommonancestor.Itmightbetruethatsomelanguageshavedivergedfromonecommonancestor,forexample,French,Spanish,ItalianandotherRomancelanguageswereclearlydescendedfromLatin,butnoevidenceshowthatalllanguagesintheworldhavethesameorigin.Asresearchshows,thereareatleast29languagefamiliesintheworld.However,thisproblemwillbesolvedwhenwehaveenoughevidencetoshowthathumanbeingshaveonecommonancestor.3.Themajorcausesforthelanguagediversityintheworldincludegrammaticalstructure,historicalfactors,socialfactors,interculturalcontact,etc.1.Thetwosentencesperformthesamefunctionofrequesting.However,Thetwosentenceshavedifferentchoicesofwordsandsyntaxstructures.Sentence(a)isstructurallyanimperativesentence,whileSentence(b)takestheformofaquestionandtheword'please'isadded.So,theeffectsofthetwoutterancesaredifferent.Sentence(b)wouldsoundmorepolite.Whenwearedecodingthem,wewouldtakeintoaccountsuchfactorsaschoiceofwordsandsyntacticstructures,theprincipleofpolitenessandthecontext.Asascience,linguisticsdemandsascientificoutlookuponlanguage.Toconductastudyoflanguagescientifically,wemusttakeanobjectiveviewoflanguageandalllinguisticphenomenaandstudylanguageandreflectonitinadetachedandunbiasedway.Evenalocalvarietywithfewnativespeakersmayalsofallwithinourinvestigations.Moreover,weshouldadoptthegeneralprinciplesofempiricalresearchprocedurestoobserveandanalyzedatafoundinnaturallanguages.Therealobjectoflinguisticsistofindoutfundamentalrulesthatunderlieallthelanguagesintheworld.Weneedtolookintothecommonfeaturesofalllanguages,therangeofvariationsamonglanguages,thedifferenceofhumanlanguagesfromanimalcommunication,thechangeandevolutionoflanguage,therelationoflanguagetomindandsociety,andsoon.Itisveryimportanttostudyspeechinlinguistics,becauselanguageisprimarilyvocal.Asweknow,nocommunityhasathe20thcenturycertainlinguistsbegantodoubtthepriorityofwriting.Bloomfieldarguedthatwritingwasnotlanguagebutmerelyawayofrecordinglanguage.Thecontemporarylinguisticsmaintainsthatthespokenlanguageisprimaryandthatwritingisessentiallyameansofrepresentingspeechinanothermedium.Linguisticshasstressedthepriorityofspeechbecauseitisthe"natural,"orprimary,mediuminwhichlanguageismanifest,andwrittenlanguagederivesfromthetransferenceofspeechtoasecondary,visualmedium.Thereisnoabsolutestandardofcorrectnessbecauselinguisticsisdescriptive,notprescriptive.Differentgroupsofpeoplemayusedifferentvarietiesoflanguage.Thecorrectnessinlanguageuseshouldnotbeprescribedgrammatically.Inreality,itisimpossibletohaveastandardlanguage.Thereasonisthatlinguisticsisdescriptive,notprescriptive.Thereisnoabsolutestandardofcorrectness.What'smore,asweknow,withthepassageoftime,alllanguagesaresubjecttochange.Alllivinglanguagesaretheretoservethedifferentsocialneedsofthecommunitiesthatusethem.Astheseneedschange,languageswilltendtochangetomeetthenewsituations.Thus,astandardlanguageisnotpossible.Therearemanyexternalfactorsrelatedtolanguage.Culturalfactorsinfluencethefullmeaningoftheage,sex,socialclass,ethnicbackground,degreeofintegrationintotheirneighborhood,etc.),therelationshipbetweenspeakerandaddresseeandthecontextandmanneroftheinteraction.Psychologicalfactorshaveeffectsonpeople'sbehaviors.Thoughtherearemanytranslationsoftwaresinthemarket,translationsdonebymachinesarefulloferrorsandrequiremuchpost-editing.Thekeyproblemisthelackofagoodlinguistictheorytoprovideaframeofreferenceformachinetranslation.Itisunlikelythatmachineswillreplacehumantranslators.Foreignlanguagelearningandteachinginvolvesseveralinterrelatedfactors.Theseare:linguistictheories,situationalfactors,inputandinteraction,learnerdifferences,learnerprocesses,linguisticoutput,curriculumandsyllabusdesign,teachingmethodology,learnerandteacherroles,textbookwriting,languageplanning,andsoon.Linguisticstudieshavegonethroughmanychanges.Sincethe1930sdowntothepresent,theexpansionofknowledgeinsomanydirectionshaveledtoseveralattemptstomakesynthesisandtodevelopaunifiedtheoryoflanguage.SeveralschoolsofthoughthaveemergedroundafewprominentlinguistssuchasFirth,Halliday,HjelmslevandChomsky,majorcentersoflinguisticstudylikePragueSchool,GenevaSchool,CopenhagenSchool,andleadingconceptssuchasstructuralism,functionalism,tagmemics,systemicfunctionalgrammar,transformationalgenerativegrammar,speechacttheory.Ithinkdiscourseanalysisisaproperwaytostudylanguage.Traditionallinguisticanalysishasconcentratedontheinternalstructureofsentences,butdiscourseanalysisisinterestedintheanalysisofunitslargerthansentences.Thus,thetermdiscourseortextreferstoalllinguisticunitswithadefinablecommunicativefunction,spokenorwritten.Itstressestheneedtoseelanguageasadynamic,social,andinteractivephenomenon.Acorpusisalwaysneededinlinguistics.Overthepastfewyears,thestudyoflanguageinactualusehasrequiredacorpus-basedresearch.Scholarsneedacorpustoanalyzepatternsofuseinnaturaltexts.Theimportanceofcorpustolanguagestudyisalignedtotheimportanceofempiricaldatabecauseempiricaldataenablethelinguisttomakeobjectivestatements,ratherthanthosebasedupontheindividual'sownsubjectiveperceptionoflanguage.So,corpuslinguisticsshouldbeseenasasubsetoftheactivitywithinanempiricalapproachtolinguistics.Charpter2Articulatoryphoneticsdealswiththeidentificationandclassificationofindividualsounds.Itattemptstoprovideaframeworkofthenatureofspeechsoundsandhowtheyareproduced.Acousticphoneticsfocusesontheanalysisandmeasurementofsoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalcharacteristicsofspeechsoundsastheyaredeterminedandmeasuredbymachines,andattemptstodeducetheacousticbasisofspeechproductionandperception.Thespeechchainconsistsofthreestages:theproductionofthemessage,thetransmissionofthemessageandthereceptionofthemessage.AccordingtoBallandRahilly,thereareaseriesofactivitiesinthespeechchain.First,thereisphysiologicalactivityinthebrainofthespeaker.Thenthebrainsendsinstructionstoavarietyofmusclesofvocalorgans.Theresultisarangeofmusclecontractionsandphysicalmovementofstructuressuchastheribcage,thelarynx,thetongueandsoon.Inturn,thesemovementsgiverisetoanaerodynamicphaseofthespeechchain,wherebyairflowsthroughthevocaltract.Thisairflowinteractswithcontinuedmovementofstructuressuchasthevocalfolds,tongue,lipsandsoftpalatetoproducethedifferentfeaturesofspeech.Thismodifiedairflowthroughthevocaltractimpingesontheairsurroundingthespeaker.3.SpellingisnotthesameaspronunciationinEnglish.Forexample,inpronunciation,the"h"intheword"hour"issilent."ph"intheword"elephant"ispronouncedas[f],whichseemstohavenothingtodowithitsspelling.Anotherexamplemightbeapairofwordslike"meet"and"meat",whohavethesamepronunciationbutdifferentspellingsandmeanings.Intheproductionofspeech,thevocaltractsetsacolumnofairintomotion,andthenmodifiesthismovingair-streaminanumberofwaystoproducethesoundsofspeech.2.Whendescribingindividualsoundsegments,phoneticiansandlinguistsoftenemploytwoparameterstoexaminehowsoundsarearticulated:mannerofarticulationandplaceofarticulation.Intermsofmanner,soundsareclassifiedintoplosives,nasals,fricatives,affricates,approximants,trillsandtaps.Whenexaminedfromviewofplaceofarticulation,soundsaredividedintogroupslikebilabials,dentals,post-alveolar,retroflex,uvular,glottal,labiodentals,alveolar,palatal,velarandpharyngealsounds.Bilabial,dentalandlabiodentalsoundsaredifferentfromoneanotherintermsofplaceofarticulation.Bilabialsarearticulationsmadewiththeupperandlowerlipsbroughttogether.Inbilabialstopstheyformanair-tightsealproducingtheplosives[p,b]or,ifthevelumislowered,thenasal[m].DentalsareproducedbyfricativesoccurinEnglishaspronunciationsofthe'th'spellings.Thevoicelessdentalfricativeisthesoundof'th'in'thin',whereasitsvoicedcounterpartisthesoundof'th'in'then'.Labiodentalsarearticulationsproducedwiththelowerlipapproximatingtotheundersideoftheupperfrontteeth.Forexample,inEnglishthe[f]infatandthe[v]invatarelabiodentalfricatives.Firstofall,vowelsandconsonantsappearindifferentplacesinEnglishwords.Secondly,vowelsandconsonantsareproduceddifferently.Vowelsaremadebyegressivepulmonicairflowthroughvibratingorconstrictedvocalfoldsandthroughthevocaltract,andthesoundismodifiedintheoralcavity.Consonantsaremadebyconstrictingthevocaltractatsomepointtherebydiverting,impeding,orcompletelyshuttingofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Narrowtranscriptioncapturestheexactarticulatorydetailsofeachsound.Itrecordsasmanyfeaturesofanutteranceascanbeascertainedbythepersondoingtherecording.Onthecontrary,broadtranscriptionisalesssubtletranscription.Itomitsmanyoftheirrelevantandpredictabledetailsofpronunciationandisperfectlysuitableformanyusers.Omitted.Phonemeistheminimumphonemicunitthatisnotfurtheranalyzableintosmallerunitssusceptibleofconcomitantoccurrence.Inotherwords,aphonemeisablockthatcannotbebrokendownintosmallerparts;itisthesmallestelementrelevanttophonemicanalysis.Allophoneisthephoneticvariantofaphoneme.Omitted.[p]and[b]aredifferentphonemesbecausetheyrepresentdistinctivesounds.Inaddition,ifwesubstituteonesoundfortheother,itresultsinachangeofmeaning.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwowordsarecalledminimalpairs.Forinstance,"deed"and"seed"areminimalpairs,but"deed"and"dog"arenotbecausethevowelandfinalconsonantinthesetwosoundsaredifferent.a)/p/-/b/:pig-big;gap-gab;b)/k/-/g/:coat-goat;back-bag;c)/f/-/v/:life-live;fife-five;d)/m/-/n/:meat-neat;time-tine;e)/r/-/l/:right-light;sear-sealDistinctivefeaturescanbeusedtodistinguishonephonemefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.Thus,"distinctive"meansservingtoidentify,distinguishing.Thedistinctivefeaturesforeachgroupofsoundsare:a)[p,t,b,d]:[-high,-back]b)[j,w,i,u]:[+voiced,+high]a)life,lives:similarities:[-high,-back],differences:life[f]:[-voiced];lives[v]:[+voiced]b)choice,choose:similarities:[-high,-back];differences:choice[s]:[-voiced],choose[z]:[+voiced]c)deduce,deduction:similarities:[+back];differences:deduce:[-high,-round],deduction:[+high,+round]Edinburgh,Wednesday,Thamesarewordsinwhichpronunciationdoesnotmatchthespelling.ofphonemes.*tpray,*btry,*tghargdonotsoundlikeanEnglishwordbecauseitdoesnotconformtotherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.Whenthreeconsonantsoccur,thefirstmustbe[s].Whentwoormoresoundsneveroccurinanidenticalphonemiccontextorenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Thatistosay,complementarydistributionreferstothecaseinwhichoneofsound(s)neveroccur(s).Forthespeaker,theChineseconsonants[sh]and[x]arethesame.So,tohim,thereisnoneedtodistinguishthesetwosounds,andhepronouncesthetwoconsonantsinthesameway..Structurally,thesyllablemaybedividedintothreeparts:theonset,thepeak,andthecoda.Theonsetofasyllableconsistsofallthesegmentsthatprecedethepeakandaretautosyllabicwithit.Thepeakisrealizedbyacalledanuncheckedoropensyllable;onewithacodaiscalledacheckedorclosedsyllable.Theword"yesterday"hasthreesyllables.ye-ster-day."extra"hastwosyllables.ex-tra"secretarial"hasfoursyllables.se-cre-ta-rial"camera"hasthreesyllables.ca-me-ra"appreciation"hasfivesyllables.a-pre-ci-a-tion3.Englishhassyllablesthatbeginwithvowelsandonsetsoffromonetothreeconsonants.InEnglish,three-consonantonsetsarehighlyrestrictedintheircomposition.Thefirstconsonantsinsuchonsetsmustbeans,thesecondavoicelessstop,andthethirdaliquid.Moreover,ifthesecondconsonantist,thethirdmustber.verylargeextentdeterminedbystrongbeatsfallingonthestressedsyllablesofwords.Thus,atypicalspokenutteranceofEnglishwillconsistofanumberofrhythmicunits.Eachunitisdominatedbythebeatofthestressedsyllable.Inverse,thewordingischaracteristicallyanddeliberatelyorganizedtoyieldaregularrhythm,andtheunitsofthisrhythmarecommonlycalled'feet'.ThiskindofrhythmputsacharacteristicstamponthenatureofspokenEnglish.Pitchisasuprasegmentalqualitywhichextendsoverindividualsegmentsandlongerstretchesofspeech.Pitchistheperceivedfrequencyofasoundwave.Perceivedpitchislargelydeterminedbythefrequencyofvibrationofthevocalfolds,andtosomeextentbytheintensityofthesound.PitchisveryimportantinChinese.DifferentpitchesonChinesecharacterscanleadtomeaningdifferences.Forexample,"fei",whengivendifferentpitches,maymean"飞(fly)","肥(fat)","匪(bandit)"or"沸(boil)".TheintonationpatternsofthefollowingEnglishquestionsare:a)Itbeginswithamidpitch,risestoahigherpitchandthenfalls.b)Falling.c)Rising.d)Itbeginswithamidpitch,fallstoalowerpitchandthenrises.Intonationsrefertothepitchdifferencesthatextendoverphoneticunitslargerthanthesyllable.Intonationservesseveralfunctionsinverbalcommunicationsuchasgroupingwords,emphasizingwordsanddifferentiatingmeanings.Intonationplaysaveryimportantroleindailyconversations.Insomelanguages,suchasEnglishandChinese,thesamesequenceofsegmentsmayhavedifferentmeaningsifutteredatdifferentrelativepitches.KeystoLinguisticsofXiamenUniversityCharpter3Awordischaracterizedwiththefollowingfourfeatures:(1)Awordisasoundorcombinationofsoundswhichwemakevoluntarilywithourvocalorgans.(2)Awordissymbolic,i.e.itstandsforsomethingelse,suchasobjects,happeningsorideas.(3)Awordispartofthelargecommunicationsystemwecalllanguage.(4)Wordshelphumanbeingstointeractculturallywithoneanother.Therelationbetweenthesoundorsoundcombinationofawordanditsmeaningisalmostalwaysarbitrary.Thereisnologicalrelationshipbetweenthesoundorthecombinationofsoundswhichstandsforanentity(includingathing,ahappeningoranidea)andtheentityitself.Ontheonehand,thesamesoundmaystandfordifferententitiesindifferentlanguages.Ontheotherhand,thesamemeaningcanberepresentedbydifferentsoundofcombinationofsounds.Apartfromtheconceptualmeaning(alsocalled"denotative","logical"or"cognitive"meaning),awordnormallyhasvariousassociatedmeanings,includingtheconnotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,andcollocativemeaning.Wecanturntothedictionaryforitsconceptualmeaning.Asforitsvariousassociatedmeanings,however,wehavetorelatethewordwithitscontext,includingthelinguisticcontextaswellasthecontextofsituationandthecontextofculture.In(prep.)practice(n.),writers(n.)on(prep.)style(n.)have(primaryv.)differed(fullv.)a(det.)great(adj.)deal(n.)in(prep.)their(pron.)understanding(n.)of(prep.)the(det.)subject(n.),and(conj.)one(num.)source(n.)of(prep.)disagreement(n.)has(primaryv.)been(fullv.)the(det.)question(n.)"To(prep.)what(pron.)orwhom(pron.)do(primaryv.)we(pron.)attribute(fullv.)style(n.)?In(prep.)the(det.)broadest(adj.)sense(n.),STYLE(n.)can(modalv.)be(primaryv.)applied(fullv.)to(prep.)both(adv.)spoken(adj.)and(conj.)written(adj.),both(adv.)literary(adj.)and(conj.