纽马克的翻译理论

纽马克的翻译理论纽马克的翻译理论纽马克的翻译理论Chapter2PeterNewmarkSemanticandCommunicativeTranslationGuidedReadingPeterNewmark(1916)isanaccomplishedtranslationscholaraswellasanexperiencedtranslator.Hehastranslatedanumberofbooksandarticlesandpublishedextaensivelyontranslation.HispublicationsontranslationincludeApproachestoTranslation(1981),AboutTranslation(1983),ParagraphsonTranslation段落翻译(1985),ATextbookofTranslation翻译教程(1988),andMoreParagraphsonTranslation(1993).InhisworkApproachestoTranslation,Newmarkproposestwotypesoftranslation:semantictranslation语义翻译andcommunicativetranslation交际翻译.Semantictranslationfocusesprimarilyuponthesemanticcontentofthesourcetextwhereascommunicativetranslationfocusesessentiallyuponthecomprehensionandresponseofreceptors.ThisdistinctionresultsfromhisdisapprovalofNida'sassumption假定，假设，设想；假装；承担，担任thatalltranslatingiscommunicating,andtheoverriding最主要的，最优先的principleofanytranslationistoachieve"equivalenteffect".ForNewmark,thesuccessofequivalenteffectis"illusory",andthat"theconflictofloyalties,thegapbetweenemphasisonsourceandtargetlanguageswillalwaysremainastheoverridingproblemintranslationtheoryandpractice"(1981:38).Tonarrowthegap,Newmark系统地阐述，确切地 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 达；规划，构想出formulateshisconceptsof"communicativetranslation"and"semantictranslation",whichinasense从某种意义上说aresimilartoNida's"dynamicequivalenttranslation"and"formalequivalenttranslation".Newmarksadmits"communicativetranslation"isacommonmethodandcouldbeusedinmanytypesoftranslation.Nevertheless,hejustifies证明……正当/有理，为……辩护thelegitimacy合法性，正当；合理性，妥当；嫡出，正统of"semantictranslation"inthefollowingthreeaspects.Firstly,alltranslationsdependonthethree一分为二，二分法；本质对立dichotomies,namely,theforeignandnativecultures,thetwolanguages,thewriterandthetranslator.Hence,itisunlikelytohaveauniversaltheorythatcouldincludeallthesefactors.Secondly,previousdiscussionsonmethodsoftranslation,eitherNida's"dynamicequivalence"orNabokow's"literaltranslation",doesnotreflecttheactualrealityoftranslationmethod,foreachofthemeitherrecommendsoneor贬低，轻视disparagestheother.Thirdly,thesocialfactors,especiallythereadersofthesecondlanguage,onlyplayapartial部分的；偏爱/袒/心的role发挥部分作用intranslation.Sometexts,suchasanexpressiveone,requirea"semantictranslation"(1981:62).Itcanbeseenthat可以看出byproposingthecoexistenceof"communicativetranslation"and"semantictranslation",Newmarksuggestsacorrelation相互关系，关联；相关性betweentranslationmethodandtexttype.Itshouldbepointedoutthat应该指出的是Newmark'ssemantictranslationdiffersfromliteraltranslation直译becausetheformer"respectscontext",interpretsandevenexplainswhilethelattersticksverycloselytosourcetextatwordandsyntaxlevel(1981:62).Literaltranslation,however,isheldtobethebestapproachinbothsemanticandcommunicativetranslation,"providedthat如果equivalenteffectissecured,theliteralword-for-wordtranslationisnotonlythebest,itistheonlyvalidmethodoftranslation"(1981:39).HereNewmarkseemstoonlytakeaccountof考虑到，顾及，体谅literarytranslationratherthannon-literarytranslation,whichisoftenrenderedmorefreelyinordertocommunicatethemeaning.Buthealsostatesthatwhenthereisaconflictbetweensemanticandcommunicativetranslation,thelatterwouldwinout胜出.Forinstance,itisbettertorendercommunicativelythepublicsign公共标志bissigerHundandchienmechantintobewardthedog!inordertocommunicateefficientlythemessage,butnotsemanticallyasdogthatbites!andbaddog!(1981:39).Nevertheless,itisdifficultforatranslatortofollowNewmark'stranslationmethodsinpractice,whichshouldbeadoptedflexiblyaccordingtothespecificcontextandtexttype.ATextbookofTranslationisanexpansionandarevisionofApproachestoTranslationinmanyaspects在很多方面.Inthisbook,Newmark,follwingtheGermanlinguistKarlBuhler'sfunctionaltheoryoflanguage,proposesthreemaintypesoftexts(i.e.expressive有表现力的，富有表情的,informative提供大量资料或信息的，授予知识的andvocative呼格的)aswellasmethodsoftranslatingthem(Chapters4and5).Althoughhelistsmanytranslationmethodsfromword-for-wordtranslationtoadaptation,heinsiststhat"onlysemanticandcommunicativetranslationfulfillthetwomainaimsoftranslation,whicharefirst,accuracy,andsecond,economy".Whilesemantictranslationisusedforexpressivetexts,communicativetranslationisforinformativeandvocativetextsalthoughheadmitsthatfewtextsarepurelyexpressive,informativeorvocative.Bystressingthewideapplicabilityofthesetwotranslationmethods,Newmarkseemstooverlookthefunctionofothertranslationmethodsfrequentlyadoptedintranslationpractice.Newmark'ssemanticandcommunicativetranslationahvebeenquotedfrequentlyamongtranslationscholars.Hisconcernaboutthecoexistenceofsemanticandcommunicativetranslationshowsthatinhisvieweffect-orientedtranslation以效果为导向的翻译suchasNida'sdynamicequivalenceshouldnotbeoverstressedintranslationpractice,butisjustonetypeoftranslation.Newmark'stypesoftranslation,however,arelessinfluentialthanNida'sdynamicequivalenceinthefieldoftranslationstudiesbecausethey"raisesomeofthesamepointsconcerningthetranslationprocessandtheimportanceoftheTTreader译文读者"(Munday2000:46).Further,hisviewsandcommentsarestillverytraditionalandprescriptive规定的，指定的，规范的,bearingsometracesoftraditionaltranslationtheories.Thestrengthofhiswritingliesinthathisdiscussionontranslationcoversawiderangeoftopics,andhealwaysprovidesusefuladviceandguidancefortranslator接受训练的人，实习生，培训生traineeswithalargenumberofinterestingandusefulexamples,whicharemoreconvincingthanabstracttheoreticalarguments抽象的理论论证.ThefollowingexcerptisselectedfromChapter3ofNewmark'sApproachestoTranslation.Inthischapterhe假定，要求postulateshistwomainmethodsoftranslation(i.e.Semanticandcommunicativetranslation),andtriestoapplythemintodifferenttypesoftext.CommunicativeandSemanticTranslation1.Atranslationmustgivethewordsoftheoriginal.2.Atranslationmustgivetheideasoftheoriginal.3.Atranslationshouldreadlikeanoriginalwork.4.Atranslationshouldreadlikeatranslation.5.Atranslationshouldreflectthestyleoftheoriginal.6.Atranslationshouldpossessthestyleofthetranslation.7.Atranslationshouldreadasacontemporaryoftheoriginal.8.Atranslationshouldreadasacontemporaryofthetranslation.9.Atranslationmayaddtooromitfromtheoriginal.10.Atranslationmayneveraddtooromitfromtheoriginal.11.Atranslationofverseshouldbeinprose.12.Atranslationofverseshouldbeinverse.(TheAirofTranslation,T.H.Savory,Cape,1968,p.54)Inthepre-linguisticsperiodofwritingontranslation,whichmaybesaidtodatefromCicerothroughSt.Jerome,Luther,Dryden,Tytler,Herder,Goethe,Schleiermacher,Buber,OrtegayGasset,nottosaySavory,opinionswungbetweenliteralandfree,faithfulandbeautiful,exactandnaturaltranslation,dependingonwhetherthebiaswastobeinfavourof赞成theauthororthereader,thesourceorthetargetlanguageofthetext.Uptothenineteenthcentury,literaltranslationrepresentedaphilological语言学的，文献的，文学的academicexercise语言学学术活动fromwhichtheculturalreformers文化改革者weretryingtorescueliterature.Inthenineteenthcentury,amorescientificapproachwasbroughttobearon对……有影响，和……有关translation,suggestingthatcertaintypesoftextsmustbeaccuratelytranslated,whileothersshouldandcouldnotbetranslatedatall!Sincetheriseofmodernlinguistics(philology语言学wasbecominglinguistics语言学hereinthelatefifties),andanticipatedby预计到Tytlerin1790,Larbaud,Belloc,KnoxandRieu,thegeneralemphasis,supportedbycommunication-theoristsaswellasbynon-literarytranslators,hasbeenplacedonthereader---oninformingthereadereffectivelyandappropriately,notably显著地，明显地；尤其，特别inNida,Firth,KollerandtheLeipzigSchool.Incontrast相反,thebrilliantessaysofBenjamin,ValeryandNabokov(anticipatedbyCroceandOrtegayGasset)advocatingliteraltranslationhaveappearedasisolated孤立的，被隔离的,paradoxicalphenomena自相矛盾的现象,relevantonlyto与……有关translatingworksofhighliteraryculture.Koller(1972)hasstatedthattheequivalent-effectprincipleoftranslationistendingtoruleout把……排除在外，排除……的可能性；不把……考虑在内allothers,particularlythepredominanceofanyformalelementssuchaswordorstructure.Theapparenttriumphofthe"consumer"is,Ithink,illusory.Theconflictofloyalties,thegapbetweenemphsisonsourceandtargetlanguagewillalwaysremainastheoverridingproblemintranslationtheoryandpractice.However,thegapcouldperhapsbenarrowediftheprevioustermswerereplacedasfollows:SOURCELANGUAGEBIASTARGETLANGUAGEBIASLITERALFREEFAITHFULIDIOMATICSEMANTIC/COMMUNICATIVECommunicativetranslationattemptstoproduceonitsreadersaneffectascloseaspossibletothatobtainedonthereadersoftheoriginal.Semantictranslationattemptstorender,ascloselyasthesemanticandsyntactic造句法的，句子结构的structuresofthesecondlanguageallow,theexactcontextual上下文的，前后关系上的meaningoftheoriginal.Intheory,therearewidedifferencesbetweenthetwomethods.Communicativetranslationaddressesitselfsolelytothesecondreader,whodoesnotanticipatedifficultiesorobscurities,andwouldexpectageneroustransferofforeignelementsintohisowncultureaswellashislanguagewherenecessary.Butevenherethetranslatorstillhastorespectandworkontheformofthesourcelanguagetextastheonlymaterialbasisforhiswork.Semantictranslationremainswithintheoriginalcultureandassiststhereaderonlyinits言外之意，涵意connotationsiftheyconstitute组/构/形成；设立，建立，任命theessentialhuman(non-ethnic种族的，民族的，部落的)messageofthetext.Onebasicdifferencebetweenthetwomethodsisthatwherethereisaconflict,thecommunicativemustemphasizethe"force"ratherthanthecontentofthemessage.ThusforBissigeHundorChienmechant,thecommunicativetranslationBewareofthedog!Ismandatory命令的；义务的，强制的;thesemantictranslations("dogthatbite","savagedog")wouldbemoreinformativebutlesseffective.Generally,acommunicativetranslationislikelytobesmoother,simpler,clearer,moredirect,moreconventional依照惯例的，符合习俗的，因循守旧的；常规的,conformingtoaparticularregister语域（在特定社交场合或专业领域中人们使用的词汇﹑语法等的范围）oflanguage,tendingto（与名）在……下面/之下；级别低于，隶属于（与形、动）不足under-translate,i.e.即，换而言之，也就是Tousemoregeneric类的，属的；一般的，通用的,hold-alltermsindifficultpassages.Asemantictranslationtendstobemorecomplex,moreawkward不灵活的，笨拙的,moredetailed,moreconcentrated,andpursuesthethought-processes思考过程ratherthantheintentionofthetransmitter传送/递者；传输者；传播者；发射机，发射台.Ittendstoover-translate,tobemorespecificthantheoriginal,toincludemoremeaningsinitssearchforonenuance意义上的细微差别ofmeaning.However,incommunicativeasinsemantictranslation,providedthatequivalent-effectinsecured,theliteralword-for-wordtranslationisnotonlythebest,itistheonlyvalidmethodoftranslation.Thereisnoexcuseforunnecessary"同义词synonyms",letalonev.&n.释义，意译，改述paraphrases,inanytypeoftranslation.Conversely相反地,bothsemanticandcommunicativetranslationcomplywith遵照，服从theusuallyacceptedsyntactic造句法的，句子结构的equivalents(VinayandDarbelnet's"transpositions")forthetwolanguagesinquestion正在谈论的.Thus,bybothmethods,asentencesuchas"IItraversalaMancheennageant"wouldnormallybetranslatedas"HeswamacrosstheChannel".Insemantic,butnotcommunicativetranslation,anydeviation背离，偏离；偏差；离题fromSL文体规范stylisticnorms规范， 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 wouldbereflectedinanequallywidedeviationfromtheTLnorms,butwheresuchnormsclash,thedeviationsarenoteasytoformulate构想出，规划；系统地阐述，确切地表达,andthetranslatorhastoshowacertaintensionbetweenthewriter'smannerandthe强迫，强制；冲动，欲望compulsionsofthetargetlanguage.Thuswhenthewriteruseslongcomplexsentencesinalanguagewherethesentenceina"literary"(carefullyworked)styleisusuallycomplexandlongerthanintheTL,thetranslatormayreducethesentencessomewhat,compromisingbetweenthenormsofthetwolanguagesandthewriter.Ifindoubt,however,heshouldtrustthewriter,notthe"language",whichisasumofabstractions抽象的总和.Asemantictranslationisconcrete.Thuswhenfacedwith:此处略去一段法语。Thetranslatorhastoclingtowords,排列，配置；组合，搭配collocations,structures,emphases（emphasis的复数）强调，重点:"Theutilitarian功利的，实用的pointofviewisasalienandinappropriateasitpossiblycouldbepreciselytosuchanintenseeruption爆发ofsupremerank-classifying,rank-discriminatingvalue-judgements:hereinfactfeelinghasreachedtheantithesis对立，相反；对句，对偶ofthelowdegreeoffervour（fervor）热情，热诚，热烈presumedineverytypeofcalculating深谋远虑的，精明的；算计的，攻于心计的；计算的cleverness,everyassessmentofutility."(Myversion.)Thusatranslationisalwaysclosertotheoriginalthananyintralingual舌的，语言的renderingorparaphrasemisnamed"translation"byGeorgeSteiner(1975),andthereforeitisanindispensable不可缺少的，必需的toolforasemantician（semanticist）语义学学者，精通语义学的人andnowaphilosopher.Communicativeandsemantictranslationmaywellcoincide同时发生；相符，一致---inparticular尤其，特别,wherethetextconveysageneralratherthanaculturally(世俗的，现世的，尘世的；短暂的，暂时的temporallyand空间的，与空间有关的spatially)bound形成……的界线，限制message有文化限制的信息andwherethematterisasimportantasthemanner---notablytheninthetranslationofthemostimportantreligious,philosophical,artisticandscientifictexts,assumingsecondreadersasinformedandinterestedasthefirst.Further,thereareoftensectionsinonetextthatmustbetranslatedcommunicatively(e.g.non-lieu---"nonsuit驳回"),andotherssemantically(e.g.Aquotationfromaspeech).Thereisnoonecommunicativenoronesemanticmethodoftranslatingatext---theseareinfactwidelyv.重叠，把……叠在一起；与……部分一致n.重叠的部分overlapping一队/伙/组/群/帮bandsofmethods.Atranslationcanbemore,orless,semantic---more,orless,communicative---evenaparticularsectionorsentencecanbetreatedmorecommunicativelyorlesssemantically.Thusinsomepassages,Q.HoareandG.NowellSmith(1971)statethat:"Wefeelitpreferable更可取的，更好的，更合意的tochoosefidelity忠诚，忠实；精确overgoodEnglish,despiteitsawkwardness,inviewof鉴于，考虑到theimportanceofsomeconceptsinGramsci'swork."Eachmethodhasacommonbasisinanalyticalorcognitivetranslationwhichisbuiltupbothproposition观点，见解，主张；提议，建议；定理，命题bypropositionandwordbyword,denoting表示，是……的标志，意味着；指的是，意思是theempiricalfactual事实的，真实的，确凿的knowledgeofthetext,butfinallyrespectingtheconvention习俗，惯例；公约，协议；会议，大会ofthetargetlanguageprovidethatthethought-contentofthetexthasbeenreproduced.Thetranslationemergesinsuchawaythattheexactmeaningorfunctionofthewordsonlybecomeapparentastheyareused.Thetranslatormayhavetomakeinterim暂时的，临时的；间歇的，过渡期间的decisionswithoutbeingableatthetimetovisualizetherelationofthewordswiththeendproduct.Communicativeandsemantictranslationbifurcate分成两支，分叉atalaterstageofanalyticalorcognitivetranslationwhichisa在前，先于，预先pre-translationprocedurewhichmaybeperformedonthesource-languagetexttoconvertitintothesourceorthetargetlanguage---thereluctantversionswillbeclosertoeachotherthantheoriginaltextandthefinaltranslation.Inprinciple,cognitivetranslation使互换位置transposestheSLtextgrammaticallytoplain"animate活的，有生命的；有活力的，有生气的subject+verb+non-animateobject"条款；从句，分句clauses,or,intheextendedversion,tosequencesof:"anagent(subject)does(activeverb)something(directobject直接宾语)toorforsomeone(indirectobject)withsomething(instrumental)somewhere(locative表示位置的)"sometime(temporal)tomakesomething(resultant作为结果的，因而发生的)"---additionally,anagent/objectmaybeinavarietyofrelationshipswithanotheragent/object(possessive占有欲强的，不愿与人分享的；表示所属关系的词,equative同义词,dependency属国，属地；依赖性,source,partitive表示部分的（e.g.some,any),genitive属格，所有格,characteristic,etc.)---(relationshipsoftencoveredorconcealedbytheEnglishpreposition介词"of"),whichmustbespeltoutinaclause.ThusthegrammaticalmeaningoftheSLtextbecomesexplicit.Further,cognitivetranslationsplitsup断绝关系，离婚；裂开，分裂theword-classa.同其他事物演变的；非独创的n.衍生词，派生词derivatives,i.e.副词adverbs(=preposition+adjective+noun),adjectival形容词的nouns(e.g."whiteness"),qualifying限制的，限定的prefix-verb-nouns(e.g."contribution"),noun-verbs(e.g."toration"),noun-adjective-verb-nouns(e.g."rationalization"),etc.,intotheir组成部分，成分，零部件componentsand详细解说explicatestherelationsofallmultiple同许多部分组成的，复合的，多样的，多重的nouncompounds(e.g."dataacquisition数据采集controlsystem":systemtocontroltheacquiringofdata).Further,itreplacesfigurative比喻的，借喻的andcolloquial口语的，会话的language,idiomsand成语的，词语的phrasalverbs短语动词with表示的，指示的denotativeterms;clearsup清理；澄清；放晴；解决lexicalandgrammaticalambiguities模棱两可，含糊不清;加入（额外的事），窜改；插入（话、文字）interpolatesrelevantencyclopedic广博的，知识渊博的；百科全 书 关于书的成语关于读书的排比句社区图书漂流公约怎么写关于读书的小报汉书pdf 的informationforecological生态的，生态学的,culturalandinstitutional 制度 关于办公室下班关闭电源制度矿山事故隐患举报和奖励制度制度下载人事管理制度doc盘点制度下载 的；学会的，协会的terms;replaces代词pronounswithnounsandidentifiesreferential参考的，参照的；指示的synonyms参照代名词;reducesculturaltermstotheirfunctionaldefinitions;andanalysesthesemantic语义的featuresofanywordsthatarelikelytobesplitintotwoorthreewordswhentranslated.Thusasfarasispossible(theprocessisartificial)thetextisremovedfromitsnaturalculturalandlinguisticaxis轴，坐标轴，中心线，基准线toanartificialneutraluniversalplane飞机；平面oflanguage.Nidainhisadmirableanalysis令人钦佩的分析ofgrammaticalmeaning(1917a,pp.47-49)approachescognitivetranslationsomewhatdifferently,preferringtosplitsurfacestructuresintoseparate含蓄的，潜在的；基本的，根本的；在下面的underlying(previouslyconcealed)sentences.Thusheanalyses:"theirformerdirectorthoughttheirjourneywasadeception"into:(a)hedirectedthemformerly,(b)hethoughX(theentirefollowingexpression),(c)theyjourneyed,(d)theydeceivedY(withoutspecifyingwhoYis),addingananalysisoftherelationshipbetween(c)and(d)---e.g.means-result:byjourneyingtheydeceived",means-purpose(theyjourneyedinordertodeceive),n.添加剂a.附加的additiveevents(theyjourneyedandtheydeceived).Forcognitivetranslation,Ithink:"Themanwhousedtobetheirdirector(todirectthem)thoughttheyhadtravelledtodeceive(bytravellingtheyhaddeceived,theyhadtraveledanddeceived)"isadequate.Another(morelikely?)alternativemissedbyNidamustbeadded:"Themanwhousedtobetheirdirectorthoughttheyhadmerelypretendedtotravel,inordertodeceiveothers."(Mostverbalnouns名词化的动名词maybeactiveorpassive消极的，被动的；冷淡的，不主动的inmeaning.)Itisnotusuallynecessarytomakeafullcognitivetranslation,aproceduresimilartoBrislin's(1976)"decentring消解中心化".Wheretheculturesoftwolanguageshavebeenincontactforcenturies,thetranslatornormallyresortstocognitivetranslationonlyforobscure,ambiguousorcomplexpassages.Acognitivetranslationmayserveasatertiumcomparationisbetweentextswithdistantculturesandradicallydifferentlanguagestructures.Wherecognitivetranslationresultsinapoorlywrittenand/orrepetitivetext,communicativetranslationrequiresaboldattempttoclarifyandreorganizeit.Atextsuchasthefollowingwouldrequireconsiderablerewritingbeforeitistranslated:"IfindustrialistsaresokeenforBritaintojoinwhydoesnottheGovernmentmakeitpossibleforthosewhowanttogetintoEuropewithoutthesacrificetoBritishsovereignty...whichmustbetheinevitableresultofourjoiningifwearetorelyonM.Debre'swordsrecentlythattheCommonMarketisunworkablewithouttheTreatyofRome.Proposedrewrite:"Asindustrialistsaresokeen,whydoesnottheGovernmentmakeitpossibleforBritaintogetintoEuropewithoutsacrificinghersovereignty?AccordingtoM.Debre'srecentstatement,thiswouldfirstrequireamendmentstothetreatyofRome,whichisthelegalinstrument法律文书governingtheCommonMarket共同市场."Iamassumingthatwhilstasemantictranslationisalwaysinferiortoitoriginal,sinceitinvolveslossofmeaning,acommunicativetranslationmaybebetter,sinceitmaygaininforce有效，生效，实施中；大批，大量andclarity清楚，明晰whatitlosesinsemanticcontent.Incommunicativetranslationthetranslatoristryinginhisownlanguagetowritealittlebetterthantheoriginal,unlessheisreproducingthewell-establishedformulae配方； 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；套话，固定的说法，惯用语句ofnoticesorcorrespondence.Iassumethatincommunicativetranslationonehastherighttocorrectorimprovethelogic;toreplaceclumsywithelegant,oratleastfunctional,syntacticstructures;toremoveobscurities;toeliminate消除，清除，根除；淘汰repetition重复，反复andtautology重复，赘述;toexclude把某人排除在外，把某物排斥在外；防止进入/参加；不包括thelesslikelyinterpretationsofanambiguity;tomodifyandclarifyjargon术语，行话(i.e.Reduceloose属的，类的；一般的，总称的genericterms通用条款/词组/术语/说法torathermoreconcretecomponents),andtonormalize使标准/正常/常态化怪诞，古怪，怪异bizarreriesofidiolect个人言语特点，个人习语,i.e.wayward任性的，倔强的，刚愎的；反复无常的usesoflanguage.Further,onehastherighttocorrectmistakesoffactand滑倒，失足；小错误，小疏忽slips,normallystatingwhatonehasdoneinafootnote注脚，注释.(Allsuchcorrectionsandimprovementsareusuallyinadmissible不允许的，不许可的；不可接受的；不能承认的insemantictranslation.)Intheoryacommunicativetranslationisipsofactoasubjectiveprocedure,sinceitisintendedprimarilytoachieveacertaineffectonitsreaders'minds,whicheffectcouldonlybeverified证实，核对，证明byasurveyoftheirmentaland/orphysicalreactions.Infact,itisinitiallyasconstrainedbytheform,thestructuresandwordsoftheoriginalasasemantictranslation(thepre-translationprocess)untiltheversionisgraduallyskewed偏的，歪斜的；歪曲的，曲解的tothereader'spointofview.（逐渐朝着读者的观点倾斜）Thenthetranslatorstartstoaskhimselfwhetherhisversionis"happy",i.e.asuccessful"act",ratherthanwhetheritistrue,i.e.anexactstatement(cf.Austin,1962).Hebeginstoextendtheunitoftranslation,havingsecuredthereferentialbasis参照依据,i.e.thetruthoftheinformation;heviewswordsandphrasesinexpandingwavesintheirlinguisticcontext语言语境,restructuringandrearrangingclauses,reinforcingemphases.Nevertheless,eachlexicalandgrammaticalunithastoremain看作，视为accountedfor---thatishisAntaeanlinkwiththetext.Inonesense（=inasense从某种意义上说）,communicativetranslation,byadaptingandmakingthethoughtandculturalcontentoftheorig