haw变频器论文

haw变频器论文 变频驱动器 专业班级 : 机制07-10班 学生姓名 : 孙 纪 平 学 号: 070201009 2011年 3月 20日 变频驱动器 0 概述 变频器的英文译名是VFD(Variable-frequency Drive)，这可能是现代科技由中文反向译为英文的为数不多实例之一。(但VFD也可解释为Vacuum fluorescent display，真空荧光管，故这种译法并不常用)。变频器是应用变频技术与微电子技术，通过改变电机工作电源的频率和幅度的方式来控制交流电动机的电力传动元件。变频器在中、韩等亚洲地区受日本厂商影响而曾被称作VVVF(Variable Voltage Variable Frequency Inverter)。 变频器实物图 1 变频器的历史 变频技术诞生背景是交流电机无级调速的广泛需求。传统的直流调速技术因体积大故障率高而应用受限。20世纪60年代以后，电力电子器件普遍应用了晶闸管及其升级产品。但其调速性能远远无法满足需要。20世纪70年代开始，脉宽调制变压变频(PWM,VVVF)调速的研究得到突破，20世纪80年代以后微处理器技术的完善使得各种优化算法得以容易的实现。20世纪80年代中后期，美、日、德、英等发达国家的 VVVF变频器技术实用化，商品投入市场，得到了广泛应用。 最早的变频器可能是日本人买了英国专利研制的。不过美国和德国凭借电子元件生产和电子技术的优势，高端产品迅速抢占市场。 步入21世纪后，国产变频器逐步崛起，现已逐渐抢占高端市场。 单元串联型变频器是近几年才发展起来的一种电路拓扑结构，它主要由输入变压器、功率单元和控制单元三大部分组成。采用模块化设计，由于采用功率单元相互串联的办法解决了高压的难题而得名，可直接驱动交流电动机，无需输出变压器，更不需要任何形式的滤波器。整套变频器共有18个功率单元，每相由6台功率单元相串联，并组成Y形连接，直接驱动电机。每台功率单元电路、结构完全相同，可以互换，也可以互为备用。 变频器的输入部分是一台移相变压器，原边Y形连接，副边采用沿边三角形连接，共18副三相绕组，分别为 每台功率单元供电。它们被平均分成?、?、?三大部分，每部分具有,副三相小绕组，之间均匀相位偏移10度。该变频器的特点如下:? 采用多重化PWM方式控制，输出电压波形接近正弦波。? 整流电路的多重化，脉冲数多达36，功率因数高，输入谐波小。? 模块化设计，结构紧凑，维护方便，增强了产品的互换性。? 直接高压输出，无需输出变压器。? 极低的dv/dt输出，无需任何形式的滤波器。? 采用光纤通讯技术，提高了产品的抗干扰能力和可靠性。? 功率单元自动旁通电路，能够实现故障不停机功能。随着现代电力电子技术及计算机控制技术的迅速发展，促进了电气传动的技术革命。交流调速取代直流调速，计算机数字控制取代模拟控制已成为发展趋势。交流电机 变频调速是当今节约电能，改善生产工艺流程，提高产品质量，以及改善运行环境的一种主要手段。变频调速以其高效率，高功率因数，以及优异的调速和启制动性 能等诸多优点而被国内外公认为最有发展前途的调速方式。以前的高压变频器，由可控硅整流，可控硅逆变等器件构成，缺点很多，谐波大， 对电网和电机都有影响。近年来，发展起来的一些新型器件将改变这一现状，如IGBT、IGCT、SGCT等等。由它们构成的高压变频器，性能优异，可以实 现PWM逆变，甚至是PWM整流。不仅具有谐波小，功率因数也有很大程度的提高。 2 变频器工作原理 主电路是给异步电动机提供调压调频电源的电力变换部分，变频器的主电路大体上可分为两类:电压型是将电压源的直流变换为交流的变频器，直流回路的滤波是电容;电流型是将电流源的直流变换为交流的变频器，其直流回路滤波是电感。 它由三部分构成，将工频电源变换为直流功率的“整流器”，吸收在变流器和逆变器产生的电压脉动的“平波回路”，以及将直流功率变换为交流功率的“逆变器”。 (1)整流器 最近大量使用的是二极管的变流器，它把工频电源变换为直流电源。也可用两组晶体管变流器构成可逆变流器，由于其功率方向可逆，可以进行再生运转。 (2)平波回路 在整流器整流后的直流电压中，含有电源6倍频率的脉动电压，此外逆变器产生的脉动电流也使直流电压变动。为了抑制电压波动，采用电感和电容吸收脉动电压(电流)。装置容量小时，如果电源和主电路构成器件有余量，可以省去电感采用简单的平波回路。 (3)逆变器 同整流器相反，逆变器是将直流功率变换为所要求频率的交流功率，以所确定的时间使6个开关器件导通、关断就可以得到3相交流输出。以电压型pwm逆变器为例示出开关时间和电压波形。控制电路是给异步电动机供电(电压、频率可调)的主电路提供控制信号的回路，它有频率、电压的“运算电路”，主电路的“电压、电流检测电路”，电动机的“速度检测电路”，将运算电路的控制信号进行放大的“驱动电路”，以及逆变器和电动机的“保护电路”组成。 运算电路:将外部的速度、转矩等指令同检测电路的电流、电压信号进行比较运算，决定逆变器的输出电压、频率。 电压、电流检测电路:与主回路电位隔离检测电压、电流等。 驱动电路:驱动主电路器件的电路。它与控制电路隔离使主电路器件导通、关断。 速度检测电路:以装在异步电动机轴机上的速度检测器(tg、plg等)的信号为 速度信号，送入运算回路，根据指令和运算可使电动机按指令速度运转。 保护电路:检测主电路的电压、电流等，当发生过载或过电压等异常时，为了防止逆变器和异步电动机损坏，使逆变器停止工作或抑制电压、电流值。 3 变频器的作用 变频器集成了高压大功率晶体管技术和电子控制技术，得到广泛应用。变频器的作用是改变交流电机供电的频率和幅值，因而改变其运动磁场的周期，达到平滑控制电动机转速的目的。变频器的出现，使得复杂的调速控制简单化，用变频器+交流鼠笼式感应电动机组合替代了大部分原先只能用直流电机完成的工作，缩小了体积，降低了维修率，使传动技术发展到新阶段。变频器可以优化电机运行，所以也能够起到增效节能的作用。根据全球著名变频器生产企业ABB的测算，单单该集团全球范围内已经生产并且安装的变频器每年就能够节省1150亿千瓦时电力，相应减少9,700万吨二氧化碳排放，这已经超过芬兰一年的二氧化碳排放量。 4 变频器的组成 变频器通常分为4部分:整流单元、高容量电容、逆变器和控制器。 整流单元将工作频率固定的交流电转换为直流电。高容量电容存储转换后的电能。逆变器由大功率开关晶体管阵列组成电子开关，将直流电转化成不同频率、宽度、幅度的方波。控制器按设定的程序工作，控制输出方波的幅度与脉宽，使叠加为近似正弦波的交流电，驱动交流电动机。 5 变频器控制方式 低压通用变频输出电压为380,650V，输出功率为0.75,400kW，工作频率为0,400Hz，它的主电路都采用交—直—交电路。其控制方式经历了以下四代。 (1)U/f=C的正弦脉宽调制(SPWM)控制方式 其特点是控制电路结构简单、成本较低，机械特性硬度也较好，能够满足一般传动的平滑调速要求，已在产业的各个领域得到广泛应用。但是，这种控制方式在低频时，由于输出电压较低，转矩受定子电阻压降的影响比较显著，使输出最大转矩减小。另外，其机械特性终究没有直流电动机硬，动态转矩能力和静态调速性能都还不尽如人意，且系统性能不高、控制曲线会随负载的变化而变化，转矩响应慢、电机转矩利用率不高，低速时因定子电阻和逆变器死区效应的存在而性能下降，稳定性变差等。因此人们又研究出矢量控制变频调速。 (2)电压空间矢量(SVPWM)控制方式 它是以三相波形整体生成效果为前提，以逼近电机气隙的理想圆形旋转磁场轨迹为目的，一次生成三相调制波形，以内切多边形逼近圆的方式进行控制的。经实践使用后又有所改进，即引入频率补偿，能消除速度控制的误差;通过反馈估算磁链幅值，消除低速时定子电阻的影响;将输出电压、电流闭环，以提高动态的精度和稳定度。但控制电路环节较多，且没有引入转矩的调节，所以系统性能没有得到根本改善。 (3)矢量控制(VC)方式 矢量控制变频调速的做法是将异步电动机在三相坐标系下的定子电流Ia、Ib、Ic、通过三相,二相变换，等效成两相静止坐标系下的交流电流Ia1Ib1，再通过按转子磁场定向旋转变换，等效成同步旋转坐标系下的直流电流Im1、It1(Im1相当于直流电动机的励磁电流;It1相当于与转矩成正比的电枢电流)，然后模仿直流电动机的控制方法，求得直流电动机的 控制量，经过相应的坐标反变换，实现对异步电动机的控制。其实质是将交流电动机等效为直流电动机，分别对速度，磁场两个分量进行独立控制。通过控制转子磁链，然后分解定子电流而获得转矩和磁场两个分量，经坐标变换，实现正交或解耦控制。矢量控制方法的提出具有划时代的意义。然而在实际应用中，由于转子磁链难以准确观测，系统特性受电动机参数的影响较大，且在等效直流电动机控制过程中所用矢量旋转变换较复杂，使得实际的控制效果难以达到理想 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 的结果。 (4)直接转矩控制(DTC)方式 1985年，德国鲁尔大学的DePenbrock教授首次提出了直接转矩控制变频技术。该技术在很大程度上解决了上述矢量控制的不足，并以新颖的控制思想、简洁明了的系统结构、优良的动静态性能得到了迅速发展。目前，该技术已成功地应用在电力机车牵引的大功率交流传动上。 直接转矩控制直接在定子坐标系下分析交流电动机的数学模型，控制电动机的磁链和转矩。它不需要将交流电动机等效为直流电动机，因而省去了矢量旋转变换中的许多复杂计算;它不需要模仿直流电动机的控制，也不需要为解耦而简化交流电动机的数学模型。矩阵式交—交控制方式，VVVF变频、矢量控制变频、直接转矩控制变频都是交—直—交变频中的一种。其共同缺点是输入功率因数低，谐波电流大，直流电路需要大的储能电容，再生能量又不能反馈回电网，即不能进 交变频应运而生。由于矩阵式交—交变频省去行四象限运行。为此，矩阵式交— 了中间直流环节，从而省去了体积大、价格贵的电解电容。它能实现功率因数为l，输入电流为正弦且能四象限运行，系统的功率密度大。该技术目前虽尚未成熟，但仍吸引着众多的学者深入研究。其实质不是间接的控制电流、磁链等量，而是把转矩直接作为被控制量来实现的。具体方法是:控制定子磁链引入定子磁链观测器，实现无速度传感器方式;自动识别(ID)依靠精确的电机数学模型，对电机参数自动识别;算出实际值对应定子阻抗、互感、磁饱和因素、惯量等算出实际的转矩、定子磁链、转子速度进行实时控制;实现Band—Band控制按磁链和转矩的Band—Band控制产生PWM信号，对逆变器开关状态进行控制。矩阵式交—交变频具有快速的转矩响应(<2ms)，很高的速度精度(?2,，无PG反馈)，高转矩精度(<，3,);同时还具有较高的起动转矩及高转矩精度，尤其在低速时(包括0速度时)，可输出150,,200,转矩。 6 变频器的分类 6.1 按变换的环节分类 (1)交-直-交变频器 交-直-交变频器是先把工频交流通过整流器变成直流，然后再把直流变换成频率电压可调的交流，又称间接式变频器，是目前广泛应用的通用型变频器。 (2)交-交变频器 交-交变频器是将工频交流直接变换成频率电压可调的交流，又称直接式变频器; 6.2 按直流电源性质分类 (1)电压型变频器 电压型变频器特点是中间直流环节的储能元件采用大电容，负载的无功功率将由它来缓冲，直流电压比较平稳，直流电源内阻较小，相当于电压源，故称电压型变频器，常选用于负载电压变化较大的场合。 (2)电流型变频器 电流型变频器特点是中间直流环节采用大电感作为储 能环节，缓冲无功功率，即扼制电流的变化，使电压接近正弦波，由于该直流内阻较大，故称电流源型变频器(电流型)。电流型变频器的特点(优点)是能扼制负载电流频繁而急剧的变化。常选用于负载电流变化较大的场合。 6.3 按照工作原理分类 可以分为V/f控制变频器、转差频率控制变频器和矢量控制变频器等; 6.4 按照开关方式分类 可以分为PAM控制变频器、PWM控制变频器和高载频PWM控制变频器; 6.5 按照用途分类 可以分为通用变频器、高性能专用变频器、高频变频器、单相变频器和三相变频器等。此外，变频器还可以按输出电压调节方式分类，按控制方式分类，按主开关元器件分类，按输入电压高低分类。 6.6 按变频器调压方法 PAM变频器是一种通过改变电压源Ud 或电流源Id的幅值进行输出控制的。 脉冲波个脉冲，其等值PWM变频器方式是在变频器输出波形的一个周期产生个 电压为正弦波，波形较平滑。 6.7 按工作原理分 U/f控制变频器(VVVF控制)、SF控制变频器(转差频率控制)、VC控制变频器(Vectory Control 矢量控制)。 6.8 按电压等级分类 可分为高压变频器、中压变频器、低压变频器。 7 变频器节能效果 (1)调速节能 变频器节能主要 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 现在风机、水泵的应用上。为了保证生产的可靠性，各种生产机械在设计配用动力驱动时，都留有一定的富余量。当电机不能在满负荷下运行时，除达到动力驱动要求外，多余的力矩增加了有功功率的消耗，造成电能的浪费。风机、泵类等设备传统的调速方法是通过调节入口或出口的挡板、阀门开度来调节给风量和给水量，其输入功率大，且大量的能源消耗在挡板、阀门的截流过程中。当使用变频调速时，如果流量要求减小，通过降低泵或风机的转速即可满足要求。由流体力学可知，P(功率),Q(流量)×H(压力)，流量Q与转速N的一次方成正比，压力H与转速N的平方成正比，功率P与转速N的立方成正比，如果水泵的效率一定，当要求调节流量下降时，转速N可成比例的下降，而此时轴输出功率P成立方关系下降。即水泵电机的耗电功率与转速近似成立方比的关系。所队当所要求的流量Q减少时，可调节变频器输出频率使电动机转速n按比例降低。这时，电动机的功率P将按三次方关系大幅度地降低，比调节挡板、阀门节能40,一50,，从而达到节电的目的。以上海正艺信息科技有限公司生产的变频器应用到风机水泵型负载的节能的例子来说:一台离心泵电机功率为55千瓦，当转速下降到原转速的4/5时，其耗电量为28.16千瓦，省电48.8,，当转速下降到原转速的l,2时，其耗电量为6.875 千瓦，省电87.5,。 (2)功率因数补偿节能 无功功率不但增加线损和设备的发热，更主要的是功率因数的降低导致电网有功功率的降低，大量的无功电能消耗在线路当中，设备使用效率低下，浪费严重，使用变频调速装置后，由于变频器内部滤波电容 的作用，从而减少了无功损耗，增加了电网的有功功率。 (3)软启动节能 电机硬启动对电网造成严重的冲击，而且还会对电网容量要求过高，启动时产生的大电流和震动时对挡板和阀门的损害极大，对设备、管路的使用寿命极为不利。而使用变频节能装置后，利用变频器的软启动功能将使启动电流从零开始，最大值也不超过额定电流，减轻了对电网的冲击和对供电容量的要求，延长了设备和阀门的使用寿命。节省了设备的维护费用。 Variable-frequency drive A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor. A variable frequency drive is a specific type of adjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VSD), AC drives, microdrives or inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied along with frequency, these are sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable frequency) drives. variable-frequency drive 1 VFD types All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning them only on or off. Using a linear device such as a transistor in its linear mode is impractical for a VFD drive, since the power dissipated in the drive devices would be about as much as the power delivered to the load. Drives can be classified as: Constant voltage Constant current Cycloconverter In a constant voltage converter, the intermediate DC link voltage remains approximately constant during each output cycle. In constant current drives, a large inductor is placed between the input rectifier and the output bridge, so the current delivered is nearly constant. A cycloconverter has no input rectifier or DC link and instead connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase. The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width modulation to control both the frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load. 2 VFD system description A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a controller and an operator interface. 2.1 VFD motor The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical choice. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed operation are often used. Certain enhancements to the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance, such as MG-31 rated motors. 2.2 VFD controller Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier or converter bridge. The rectifier is usually a three-phase, full-wave-diode bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit. The inverter circuit is probably the most important section of the VFD, changing DC energy into three channels of AC energy that can be used by an AC motor. These units provide improved power factor, less harmonic distortion, and low sensitivity to the incoming phase sequencing than older phase controlled converter VFD's. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load. As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, these have promptly been applied to inverter circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are available. Introduced in the 1980s, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) became the device used in most VFD inverter circuits in the first decade of the 21st century. AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the frequency is changed in order to deliver the rated torque. For example, if a motor is designed to operate at 460 volts at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to 230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz in this case). For optimum performance, some further voltage adjustment may be necessary especially at low speeds, but constant volts per hertz is the general rule. This ratio can be changed in order to change the torque delivered by the motor. In addition to this simple volts per hertz control more advanced control methods such as vector control and direct torque control (DTC) exist. These methods adjust the motor voltage in such a way that the magnetic flux and mechanical torque of the motor can be precisely controlled. The usual method used to achieve variable motor voltage is pulse-width modulation (PWM). With PWM voltage control, the inverter switches are used to construct a quasi-sinusoidal output waveform by a series of narrow voltage pulses with pseudosinusoidal varying pulse durations. Operation of the motors above rated name plate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated volts/hertz and above rated name plate speed. Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage. Wound rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4 pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power. At higher speeds the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor. Thus rated power can be typically produced only up to 130...150 % of the rated name plate speed. Wound rotor synchronous motors can be run even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives often 200...300 % of the base speed is used. Naturally the mechanical strength of the rotor and lifetime of the bearings is also limiting the maximum speed of the motor. It is recommended to consult the motor manufacturer if more than 150 % speed is required by the application. PWM VFD Output Voltage Waveform An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. The main microprocessor programming is in firmware that is inaccessible to the VFD user. However, some degree of configuration programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided so that the user can customize the VFD controller to suit specific motor and driven equipment requirements. 2.3 VFD operator interface The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control functions might include reversing and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches and other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, [8][14][15]monitored and controlled using a computer. 3 VFD operation When an induction motor is connected to a full voltage supply, it draws several times (up to about 6 times) its rated current. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises to a peak while the current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed. By contrast, when a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor. The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive current. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed. Note, however, that cooling of the motor is usually not good in the low speed range. Thus running at low speeds even with rated torque for long periods is not possible due to overheating of the motor. If continuous operation with high torque is required in low speeds an external fan is usually needed. The manufacturer of the motor and/or the VFD should specify the cooling requirements for this mode of operation. In principle, the current on the motor side is in direct proportion of the torque that is generated and the voltage on the motor is in direct proportion of the actual speed, while on the network side, the voltage is constant, thus the current on line side is in direct proportion of the power drawn by the motor, that is U.I or C.N where C is torque and N the speed of the motor (we shall consider losses as well, neglected in this explanation). With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy. With 4-quadrants rectifiers (active-front-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and reverting the energy back to the network. 4 Power line harmonics While PWM allows for nearly sinusoidal currents to be applied to a motor load, the diode rectifier of the VFD takes roughly square-wave current pulses out of the AC grid, creating harmonic distortion in the power line voltage. When the VFD load size is small and the available utility power is large, the effects of VFD systems slicing small chunks out of AC grid generally go unnoticed. Further, in low voltage networks the harmonics caused by single phase equipment such as computers and TVs are such that they are partially cancelled by three-phase diode bridge harmonics. However, when either a large number of low-current VFDs, or just a few very large-load VFDs are used, they can have a cumulative negative impact on the AC voltages available to other utility customers in the same grid. When the utility voltage becomes misshapen and distorted the losses in other loads such as normal AC motors are increased. This may in the worst case lead to overheating and shorter operation life. Also substation transformers and compensation capacitors are affected, the latter especially if resonances are aroused by the harmonics. In order to limit the voltage distortion the owner of the VFDs may be required to install filtering equipment to smooth out the irregular waveform. Alternately, the utility may choose to install filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being used. In high power installations decrease of the harmonics can be obtained by supplying the VSDs from transformers that have different phase shift. Further, it is possible to use instead of the diode rectifier a similar transistor circuit that is used to control the motor. This kind of rectifier is called active infeed converter in IEC standards. However, manufacturers call it by several names such as active rectifier, ISU (IGBT Supply Unit), AFE (Active Front End) or four quadrant rectifier. With PWM control of the transistors and filter inductors in the supply lines the AC current can be made nearly sinusoidal. Even better attenuation of the harmonics can be obtained by using an LCL (inductor-capacitor-inductor) filter instead of single three-phase filter inductor. Additional advantage of the active infeed converter over the diode bridge is its ability to feed back the energy from the DC side to the AC grid. Thus no braking resistor is needed and the efficiency of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor. 5 Application considerations The output voltage of a PWM VFD consists of a train of pulses switched at the carrier frequency. Because of the rapid rise time of these pulses, transmission line effects of the cable between the drive and motor must be considered. Since the transmission-line impedance of the cable and motor are different, pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable. The resulting voltages can produce up to twice the rated line voltage for long cable runs, putting high stress on the cable and motor winding and eventual insulation failure. Increasing the cable or motor size/type for long runs and 480v or 600v motors will help offset the stresses imposed upon the equipment due to the VFD (modern 230v single phase motors not effected). At 460 V, the maximum recommended cable distances between VFDs and motors can vary by a factor of 2.5:1. The longer cables distances are allowed at the lower Carrier Switching Frequencies (CSF) of 2.5 kHz. The lower CSF can produce audible noise at the motors. For applications requiring long motor cables VSD manufacturers usually offer du/dt filters that decrease the steepness of the pulses. For very long cables or old motors with insufficient winding insulation more efficient sinus filter is recommended. Expect the older motor's life to shorten. Purchase VFD rated motors for the application. Further, the rapid rise time of the pulses may cause trouble with the motor bearings. The stray capacitance of the windings provide paths for high frequency currents that close through the bearings. If the voltage between the shaft and the shield of the motor exceeds few volts the stored charge is discharged as a small spark. Repeated sparking causes erosion in the bearing surface that can be seen as fluting pattern. In order to prevent sparking the motor cable should provide a low impedance return path from the motor frame back to the inverter. Thus it is essential to use a cable designed to be used with VSDs. In big motors a slip ring with brush can be used to provide a bypass path for the bearing currents. Alternatively isolated bearings can be used. The 2.5 kHz and 5 kHz CSFs cause fewer motor bearing problems than the 20 kHz CSFs. Shorter cables are recommended at the higher CSF of 20 kHz. The minimum CSF for synchronize tracking of multiple conveyors is 8 kHz. The high frequency current ripple in the motor cables may also cause interference with other cabling in the building. This is another reason to use a motor cable designed for VSDs that has a symmetrical three-phase structure and good shielding. Further, it is highly recommended to route the motor cables as far away from signal cables as possible. 6 Available VFD power ratings Variable frequency drives are available with voltage and current ratings to match the majority of 3-phase motors that are manufactured for operation from utility (mains) power. VFD controllers designed to operate at 111 V to 690 V are often classified as low voltage units. Low voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 0.2 kW or 1/4 horsepower (hp) up to several megawatts. For example, the largest ABB ACS800 single drives are rated for 5.6 MW . Medium voltage VFD controllers are designed to operate at 2,400/4,162 V (60 Hz), 3,000 V (50 Hz) or up to 10 kV. In some applications a step up transformer is placed between a low voltage drive and a medium voltage load. Medium voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 375 kW or 500 hp and above. Medium voltage drives rated above 7 kV and 5,000 or 10,000 hp should probably be considered to be one-of-a-kind (one-off) designs. Medium voltage drives are generally rated amongst the following voltages : 2,3 KV - 3,3 Kv - 4 Kv - 6 Kv - 11 Kv. The in-between voltages are generally possible as well. The power of MV drives is generally in the range of 0,3 to 100 MW however involving a range a several different type of drives with different technologies. 7 Dynamic braking Using the motor as a generator to absorb energy from the system is called dynamic braking. Dynamic braking stops the system more quickly than coasting. Since dynamic braking requires relative motion of the motor's parts, it becomes less effective at low speed and cannot be used to hold a load at a stopped position. During normal braking of an electric motor the electrical energy produced by the motor is dissipated as heat inside of the rotor, which increases the likelihood of damage and eventual failure. Therefore, some systems transfer this energy to an outside bank of resistors. Cooling fans may be used to protect the resistors from damage. Modern systems have thermal monitoring, so if the temperature of the bank becomes excessive, it will be switched off. 8 Regenerative variable-frequency drives Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of an overhauling load and return it to the power system. Line regenerative variable frequency drives, showing capacitors(top cylinders)and inductors attached which filter the regenerated power. Cycloconverters and current-source inverters inherently allow return of energy from the load to the line; voltage-source inverters require an additional converter to return energy to the supply. Regeneration is only useful in variable-frequency drives where the value of the recovered energy is large compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system and if the system requires frequent braking and starting. An example would be use in conveyor belt during manufacturing where it should stop for every few minutes, so that the parts can be assembled correctly and moves on. Another example is a crane, where the hoist motor stops and reverses frequently, and braking is required to slow the load during lowering. Regenerative variable-frequency drives are widely used where speed control of overhauling loads is required. 9 Brushless DC motor drives Much of the same logic contained in large, powerful VFDs is also embedded in small brushless DC motors such as those commonly used in computer fans. In this case, the chopper usually converts a low DC voltage (such as 12 volts) to the three-phase current used to drive the electromagnets that turn the permanent magnet rotor.