[原创]High-context Culture and Low高低语境

[原创]High-context Culture and Low高低语境 Supplimentary Materials 1. Key Terms: 1. Sensation(感觉):sensation is the neurological process by which people become aware of their environment.(感觉是人们意识到周围环境的神经过程) 2. Organization(组织): 把从周围选择的刺激信息，以一种有意义的方式整理，组合。 3. Interpretation(释义):Interpretation refers to attaching meaning to sense data.(赋予信息意 义) 4. High context culture(高语境文化):Cultures in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are labeled high context.(在高语境文化中，在人们交际时，有较多的信息量或者蕴涵在社会文化 环境和情景中，或者内化于交际者的心中;相对地讲，明显的语码则负载较少的信息量。 这也意味着，在强交际环境文化的人们对微妙的环境提示较为敏感。) 5. Low context culture(低语境文化):Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the context because the message is encoded in the explicit code are labeled low context. (在 低语境文化中，交际过程中所产生的信息量的大部分由显性的语码负载，相对地讲，只 有少量的信息蕴涵在隐性的环境和情景中。这也意味着，在低语境文化中的人们习惯用 语言本身的力量来进行交际。) 2. Additional Information: , Supplementary English Case: 6.2.1.a This demonstrates that even stimuli we can be aware of we do not attend to continually. Being in a busy airport terminal is a good example. While there, you are confronted with many competing stimuli. You simply cannot attend to everything. However, if in the airport terminal an announcement is made asking you by name to report to a courtesy telephone, you would probably hear your name even in that environment of competing stimuli. 6.2.1.c Think of how speakers of English categorize life. Most probably use the categories of human life and animal life. Now think of how you typically categorize animal life: probably into wild animals and domesticated animals. Now think of how you typically categorize domesticated animal life: probably into animals use for food, animals used for sport and recreation, and pets. Look at the picture of the puppy and capture your feelings. Most of us see this puppy in the category of pet for which we have learned to relate warm, loving feelings. Puppies are cute, cuddly, warm, loving creatures. Now look at the pictures below and capture your feelings. Most of us who love dogs find these pictures uncomfortable and disgusting. How can people eat dogs? They’re pets, not food! It all depends on where you categorize them. Dogs are pets in some cultures and food in others. In the Arab world, dogs are acceptable as watchdogs and as hunting dogs but are not kept in the home as pets because they are seen as unclean and a low form of life. To call someone a dog is an insult among Arabs. People in most cultures have strong ideas about which foods are acceptable for human consumption and which are not. People in some countries think the custom in the United States of eating corn on the cob is disgusting because that food is fit only for pigs. The Ukrainian favorite food salo, raw pig fat with black bread and vodka, might cause nausea in some, as would knowing that horse meat from California is served in restaurants in Belgium, France, and Japan. Your reaction of disgust is a culturally learned interpretation and that interpretation can be quite strong. In 1989, California made it a misdemeanor for any person to sell, buy, or accept any animal traditionally kept as a pet with the intent of killing the animal for food. More recently, animal rights groups have protested the sale of live animals, such as turtles, frogs, lobsters, crabs, fish, and chicken, for food at Asian-American markets. Asian tradition is that fresh meat is tastier and more healthful, that the best meat is that ―that enters your house still breathing.‖ Animal rights activists contend that the animals are treated inhumanely in the shops and are killed in ways that cause them unnecessary pain. Asian-American groups argue that eating dogs and cats is an extreme rarity among Southeast Asian immigrants and call the law and the animal rights activists racist. In some cultures, parts of some animals are categorized as medicine. In other cultures, certain animals are considered sacred and would certainly not be eaten. The Hindu elephant-headed God Ganesh is accompanied by a rat whenever he travels. Rats, like cows, are deified in India. No Hindu worship is complete without an offering to Ganesh and his companion, the rat. Rats are fed and rarely killed in India. A case analysis Can you use Confucianism to explain why Chinese people have both fan and cai in one meal? Confucianism encourages a sense of balance and harmony. The distinctive process of preparing Chinese cuisine is based on Confucius and his philosophy of balance. There is a division between fan, Chinese for grains and other starch foods, and cai, vegetable and meat dishes. A balanced meal, then, must have an appropriate amount of fan and cai. , 中文补充案例及材料: 6.2.1.a (选择) 英语 关于好奇心的名言警句英语高中英语词汇下载高中英语词汇 下载英语衡水体下载小学英语关于形容词和副词的题 国家重长大的人对理解某些日语发音有一定的困难。有些日语的发音 现象在英语里不存在。 例如:obasan aunt obaasan grandmother kita came kitta hear 6.2.1.b (组织)不同国家对颜色的划分不同。 6.2.1.c (释义)不同的文化对狗的态度不同:西方国家视之为宠物;韩国视之为美食。 龙在中国文化是吉祥的象征，而在西方文化中却是邪恶的象征。 英语中有，“lucky dog”“而在汉语中却有“狗眼看人低”，“狗仗人势”等词语。 Many people consider dogs as pets, however, in some countries such as Korea, dogs are delicious food. Can you explain your feelings about this photograph? 6.3 (高语境，低语境)美国的课堂上经常放映关于日本茶道的电影。日本茶道是道教传统的反映，崇尚精神高于物质，崇尚繁忙生活中的安宁。茶道在和谐的音乐中把主人和客人联系在一起。此处无声胜有声。一切尽在共同的经历，一切尽在茶室，插花，书法，瓷器之中。茶道是高语境的典型例子。而在低语境中人们会说“快点，喝杯茶～”茶中没有共同的经历可分享。 6.3脸的概念:在中国文化中face有两种解释方法:脸和面子。尽管二者可以互换，但意义却不近相同。脸代表信心而面子代表荣誉和名誉。 中国的道教有阴阳之分，阴阳是掌控自然和生命的一种平衡的力量。 中国的食物注重色，香，味俱全是平衡和和谐的表现。 中国就餐时既吃饭又吃菜也是平衡和和谐的表现。 6.3 Cross-cultural tips 6.3.1 跨文化交流中―语境文化‖的角色 一位受英文教育的新加坡公民的一位居于中国的长辈去世了，她代表父母到中国参加这位长辈的葬礼。临行前她母亲千叮万嘱，要她把一笔钱交给这位去世长辈的亲友，以表悼念心意。当她把钱面交有关亲友时，不料对方连连推拒。朋友见状，也就没有再坚持了。岂料回到新加坡后不久，就听到了亲友的隔海埋怨，责之不晓世事。惟到此时，她才明白了临行前母亲那几近执着的叮咛的真正含义。 一位会说中文的美国投资商人曾叹道，在与中国人共事时，不是自己的话常被别人误解，就是自己对别人的话语理解不到位。 在今天跨文化交流的大环境下，这种沟通不畅的问 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 ，相信对许多读者来说，并不陌生，它实际上是凸显了这样一个事实:在很多的情况下，言语交际的不畅，已不再仅仅是语言本身的问题，而是与语言背后的文化背景和文化因素息息相关。 美国语用学家爱德华?T?霍尔 (Edward T. Hall) 于1981年提出“语境文化”概念。在霍尔看来，不同民族在进行言语交际时，往往会不自觉地受到各自的文化背景、民族心理、思维定势和语言习惯的影响，而倾向于采用不同的语言运用和理解模式，这就形成了不同的语境文化。因此，他认为按照言语交际方式对语境的依赖程度，不同的文化其实可以被划分为“高语境文化(high-context culture)” 和“低语境文化(low-context culture)”。这里所说的“高”与“低”，并不涉及语言背后的文化、经济实力或者文化本身的素质，而是纯指不同文化在言语交际中对语境依赖程度的高低。 今天，“语境文化”在跨文化交流中的制约作用，已为愈来愈多地的人所重视。语境文化之间的差异，为人们的文化交流开启了许多新的领域，但也同时为人们的沟通设置了不少客观障碍。因此，适当地了解不同语境文化的言语制约特征，对我们更好地进行文化交流和语言交际，可谓不无裨益。 什么是“高语境文化”和“低语境文化”, 从右表中，我们可以看到，日本、中国和中 高语境 东诸国的文化均属高语境文化，而欧美文化则属 日本人 低语境文化。分属这两种不同语境文化的人在相 中国人 互沟通和交流时，会受各自的语境所其制约而采 阿拉伯人 用不同的语言运用和理解模式，也会因此而面对 希腊人 许多沟通上的问题。 墨西哥人 西班牙人 意大利人 法国人 法属加拿大人 英国人 加拿大人 美国人 北欧人 德国人 德国 – 瑞士人 低语境 在高语境文化中，说话人用含蓄婉转的方式间接地表达自已的意思，期待听话人不仅能依赖上下文来理解自己的话，更能根据特定的社会环境、历史条件、社会关系甚至是宗教因素，对说话人的意图作出正确的判断和理解。在本文开头所举的例子中，我们可以看到，笔者新加坡朋友在中国的亲友们原是希望通过含蓄的“推却”方式，达到“欲推还迎”的表达效果，他们的思维方式和语言交际模式就是受着高语境中特定的“谦让”文化所制约，而这种交际方式在大陆的中国人之间，是很少会引起误解的。 低语境文化则恰恰相反。说话人遣词用字的原则是直接、精确、易于理解。说话人所言之语的字面意思与其背后的含义大致相等，故听话人无需结合太多的文化语境因素来揣摩、猜测说话人所要表达的意思。此外，处于低语境文化的人也希望对方能以直接的方式来理解自己所说的话。 在上述例子中的美国商人，就是来自处于低语境的美国文化，其思维方式和对言语的理解和运用都基于西方的交际语境，习惯对说话人的言语作出字面上的判断，没有去深究字面背后的人情风俗、社会关系、社会地位等一系列的因素，而“理解不到位”的问题也就因此而产生了。 不同语境文化的言语表达特点 下面，让我们再来看看不同语境文化的三个语言表达特点: (一)言外之意 我们首先注意到是言语中“传情达意”成分的多寡。此处的传意成分不同于“信息量”:如果说“信息量”是指言语所传递的信息多寡的话，那么传意成分则偏重于信息背后的“意”，即那一点点的“言外之意”。 举个例子:餐宴将毕，主人问客人:“你吃饱了吗,” 客人对此话的理解和判断过程，实际上会因为主人所处的语境文化而呈现出不同的模式。若主人是一德国人，客人会因为德国文化属于低语境文化，而自然地单纯从字面上去理解这句问话，得出的结论是:“他想知道这顿饭的份量对我来说是否足够。” 若主人是一中国人，客人则会做出这样的判断:中国人的文化是高语境文化，因此这句问话中所包含的潜台词，也许会比词语的字面值高得多，其中不仅有“不知这餐饭的份量够不够”之疑，也可能有“这餐饭是否合你口味”、“中国菜你是否喜欢吃”、“你对我的招待是否满意”之问。此时，客人就可能选择这样回答:“我对这顿饭很满意。中国菜好吃，我很喜欢吃中国菜。我也非常感谢你的盛情款待。” 如此一来，不同文化语境中对言语理解的负面制约因素就会被破解，沟通畅顺，宾主尽欢。 因此，了解不同语境文化的传意成分，有助我们更准确地判断对方言语的字面值和潜台词，并据此来调整自己的言语表达和理解模式。 (二)长话短听 其次是言语交际中的用语量大小。人们可能会以为，低语境文化的言语交际全靠话语的字面意义来传递信息，因此人们在交际时就不得不使用更多的词语、更长的句子。其实不然。正如我们在前面所提到的，来自低语境文化的人倾向于使用传意成分高的词语，在遣词用字方面讲求精确、直接、不拐弯抹角，每一个词都能起到其实际的“传意”效果，因此他们的用语量并不大。 反观高语境文化。由于人们使用的是传意成分偏低的言语表达方式，词语附带的理解价值也就相对较低，因此人们可能得讲上好几个回合，兼用婉曲、双关甚至反语，才能间接勾勒出其言的理解背景。正如前文所提及的，中国、日本文化都是一种“谦让”文化，人们不仅使用隐晦含糊的词语，而且在表达方式上也是迂迥暧昧的;没有几个回合，实无法捕捉其话语的本义所在。就是这样的“一推一让”，使得用语量大大增加，也同时加深了听话人准确捉摸言语真正含义的难度。 例如，一个美国人尝试几次邀请一位同路的日本朋友来家做客。刚开始的几次，在家门口简单寒暄之后，日本朋友会说“不用进去了”之类的客套话。要待这位美国人再三发出邀请，促其“不要客气”之后，她才会说:“那我就不客气打扰了”。刚开始时，美国人感到 颇不习惯，但在其了解了日本特有的语境文化特征后，这一切又好像不那么难理解了。 因此，在对用语多寡有一个基本认识后，我们在与来自高语境文化的人交流时，就会尽量避免被那些大量的、看似无关紧要的词语弄昏头脑，就会懂得“长话短听”、“抽丝剥茧”，更专注于说话人内心的真正意向。这样一来，沟通畅顺自不在话下。 (三)“面子”问题 再者，对社会地位和“面子”问题的考量，也是高语境文化中不可或缺的重要部分。 对于来自低语境文化的美国人、德国人来说，直接发出质问和提出异议，是解决问题的最佳方式。在他们看来，“直接”是对事不对人，因此不存在尊重与否的问题。 然而，处于高语境文化的日本人、中国人，则不喜采用太过直接的方式去直斥对方的不是，认为此举会让人下不来台。尤其是日本人。即使他们不同意别人的观点，一般也不会反驳，而总是退后多步，用迂回婉转的言辞道出自己的意思，让听话人往深一层去揣摩。在日本人看来，这种尊敬度高的举动，是一种有修养的表现，能给对方留下足够的反应余地，顾及到对方的面子。 然而，这种“退后多步”的表达方式，有时却是诸多误会的开始。事实上，直来直去的美国人，据说最怕的就是在商业谈判中与日本人交手，因为后者那种模棱两可的表达方式常让他们摸不着头脑。例如，为了表示对听话人的尊重，日本人在表示“不要„„”的时侯，会用上“最好不要„„.”或“做„„的时候要远虑”等等字眼。然而，听在处于低语境文化的美国人耳里，这种拐弯抹角的说法并不等于“不要做”，而是恰恰相反，是表示事情“也许还有考虑的余地”的意思。这里造成的歧义，不可谓不大。 另一方面，来自高语境文化的人在顾及对方“面子”的同时，也极之希望从对方那里，得到同样的“面子”礼遇。了解这一点，对于来自低语境文化的人，包括欧美人士和受西方教育的新加坡人来说，尤为重要:与其说是雄辩滔滔、咄咄逼人，力求在言语用辞上压倒对方，不如采用同样的含蓄表达方式，加强自已用语的尊敬度，让对方感到你对他们的尊重和对其“面子”的照顾。能做到这一点，你离交易的成功还会远吗, 正渐渐放下“惟吾文化独尊”的架子 诚然，文化语境并不是跨文化交流中唯一的制约因素， 不同语境文化的语言表达特点实际上也不止以上提及的三点。然而，在今天的跨文化交流中，语境文化所扮演的角色实在不容小觑。 因此，当我们与来自其他国家和文化的人进行言语交际和沟通时，我们应当提醒自己， 尽量对当地不同的语境文化、不同的交际沟通模式多了解一点，态度宽容一点，多些尝试按 照不同语境文化的特点来调整我们自己的沟通技巧，切忌以封闭的心理去看待不同的语境文 化。这样，我们不仅对当地文化表现出应有的尊重，也能较为准确地判断和理解当地言语交 际的特点，有效地控制交际的过程，达到最佳的沟通效果。 必须指出的是，随着当今世界上不同民族之间的理解和交往不断加深和扩大， 人们正渐渐放下“惟吾文化独尊”的架子，愈来愈多地根据实际交际需要，调整 自已面对不同语境文化时的沟通技巧，以求取得平衡，避免不必要的误解。这对 跨文化交流来说，的确是一令人欣慰的趋势。 6.3.2 General Introduction to High-context and Low-context Cultures Anthropologist Edward T. Hall’s theory of high- and low-context culture helps us better understand the powerful effect culture has on communication. A key factor in his theory is context. This relates to the framework, background, and surrounding circumstances in which communication or an event takes place. High-context cultures (including much of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America) are relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. This means that people in these cultures emphasize interpersonal relationships. Developing trust is an important first step to any business transaction. According to Hall, these cultures are collectivist, preferring group harmony and consensus to individual achievement. And people in these cultures are less governed by reason than by intuition or feelings. Words are not so important as context, which might include the speaker’s tone of voice, facial expression, gestures, posture—and even the person’s family history and status. A Japanese manager explained his culture’s communication style to an American: ―We are a homogeneous people and don’t have to speak as much as you do here. When we say one word, we understand ten, but here you have to say ten to understand one.‖ High-context communication tends to be more indirect and more formal. Flowery language, humility, and elaborate apologies are typical. Low-context cultures (including North America and much of Western Europe) are logical, linear, individualistic, and action-oriented. People from low-context cultures value logic, facts, and directness. Solving a problem means lining up the facts and evaluating one after another. Decisions are based on fact rather than intuition. Discussions end with actions. And communicators are expected to be straightforward, concise, and efficient in telling what action is expected. To be absolutely clear, they strive to use precise words and intend them to be taken literally. Explicit contracts conclude negotiations. This is very different from communicators in high-context cultures who depend less on language precision and legal documents. High-context business people may even distrust contracts and be offended by the lack of trust they suggest. Cultural continuum, ranging according to the extent to which cultures depend on context 6.3.3 Comparisons between High-context Culture and Low-context Culture a. Examples of High- and Low-Context Cultures Low-Context Cultures High-Context Cultures Mediterranean Scandinavia Korea Germany Vietnam Switzerland Japan North America China Middle East Latin America b. c. Values of High- and Low-Context Cultures Low-Context (Individualistic) High-Context (Collective) Mastery over Nature Harmony with Nature Personal Control over the Environment Fate Doing Being Future Orientation Past or Present Orientation Change Tradition Time Dominates Focus on Relationships Human Equality Hierarchy/Rank/Status Youth Elders Self-Help Birthright Inheritance Individualism/Privacy Group Welfare Competition Cooperation Informality Formality Directness/Openness/Honesty Indirectness/Ritual/"Face" Practicality/Efficiency Idealism/Theory Materialism Spiritualism/Detachment d. CONTRASTING COMMUNICATION STYLES U.S./Australian Low context Cultures Traditional Asian High context Cultures 1. Get down to business first 1. Establish social trust first 2. Value expertise and performance 2. Value personal relations and goodwill 3. Negotiations as efficient as possible 3. Negotiations slow and ritualistic 4. Agreement by specific, legalistic contract 4. Agreement by general trust 5. Motives directly expressed 5. Motives indirectly expressed 6. Communication is explicit, verbal 6. Communication is implicit, non-verbal 7. Informal 7. Formal 8. Spontaneous 8. Goal-oriented 9. Emotionally expressive 9. Emotionally controlled 10. Self-promoting and ego-centric 10. Self effacing and modest 11. Short-term and symmetrical reciprocity 11. Long-term and asymmetrical reciprocity 12. Personal and public relationships are often 12. Personal and public relationships often separate overlap 6.3.4 How to Determine Whether a Culture is High-context or Low-context Determining If a Culture Is High or Low context Low-Context Cultures High-Context Cultures , emphasize the need to dress nicely. , A majority of the verbal information is Improper dress can insult the hosts or the explicitly communicated. For example, occasion. Dress should also reflect your an apology must be clearly articulated, social standing. If you’re in a hot climate whereas in a high-context culture the same and people aren’t wearing shorts, they’re message can be communicated through a high context. If teens and college students variety of nonverbal gestures such as a wear slacks instead of jeans, you’re in a smile, a sigh, a shrug, or a frown. high context culture. Are the women , Directness, openness, and honesty are wearing high heels instead of comfortable valued, as is freedom of emotional sandals – even in the park? Then they’re expression. Spontaneity and casualness high context! characterize informal relationships. Within , have indirect communication styles. this context, successful communication Meaning can be found in many areas: requires an understanding of the explicit symbolic gifts that indicate love, hate, and implicit norms of behavior. One of the friendship; a preference for saying "yes" implicit norms of behavior is that there is when the answer is "no" or "I don't know." an acceptable physical distance to maintain They may not say "I love you" to their when interacting with another person. The marital partner but convey the love in distance varies according to the kind of other ways. There is often a concern with relationship and degree of familiarity with not embarrassing another person by asking the individual. direct questions. Gestures may or may not , Questioning and challenging authority be an integral part of the communication are both acceptable and encouraged. pattern. Questioning the teacher and authority , have a concern with such things as figures suggests one has personal power posture and other nonverbal and can help bring about change. communication, not just for the sake of Independence, self-determination, and good posture but because it conveys personal power are highly valued. respect, good training from parents, etc. , Nonverbal communication such as For example, in some high context posture, gestures, and facial expressions cultures (like Thailand) it is disrespectful communicate a wealth of information. for lower status people to put their hands For example, eye contact is perceived to in their pockets when talking to a higher be important in validating recognition and status person. communicating interest. It is also , have greetings that indicate deference to perceived as assertive and suggests that people of higher status (as with bowing one has nothing to hide. in Japan or the wai in Thailand). , Time is considered a valuable , place a high value on fitting in with commodity. Being on time is valued what other people say and do (dress, and tardiness is considered disrespectful. manners, etc.) , are usually shame cultures so behaviors are seen as reflecting on your family, your city/village and your country. 6.3.5 Tips for communication between High-context and Low-context Cultures , Tips for Daily Communication: , Observe: Do you notice patterns of behavior? Do people act differently around older people or people of authority? Do people put money on the counter or in the cashier's hand? Do people on the street look almost mean as they avoid direct eye contact and keep a serious expression on their face? How close do people stand to each other?What is considered appropriate dress? (Caution: pay attention to who you pick as role models. Remember: every culture has its share of weirdos and nerds! But how do most people behave, speak and dress? Also, if there are strong gender roles, you should pick people of the same sex as your role models.) , Listen: Do people speak in softer voices that we do in the U.S.? Maybe they speak softer in the day time – but loudly when they’re drunk! Or, maybe men speak loudly while women are quieter. Do people roar with laughter – or cover their mouths and bow their head slightly when they laugh? Do they interrupt each other in a lively conversation – or listen quietly while one person talks at length? , Ask questions: People appreciate it when you try to understand their culture. Explain that you are a student studying in their country and that you want to understand as much as possible. Note: if you ask a question and they start laughing, it may not mean they thought it was funny. Laughter can mean the person is nervous or embarrassed. You may have asked a question about a subject that is not discussed in their culture. Generally, however, I have found people respond well to a sincere attempt to understand their culture. , Tips for Business Communication Context: , Tips for conducting business with high context cultures: Technology tips: Relationships and developing trust is of clear importance to high context cultures. Consider using both face-to-face meetings and technology as a part of your team solution. This will help facilitate the needed face-to-face relationship bond while developing the use of technology. Consider using video conferencing. While many studies have not yet shown that video conferencing has enhanced meeting facilitation it will certainly put names and faces together and create some mode of familiarity among team members. Develop ways to create visibility and a relationship among team members such as sharing photos on line, hobbies, personal Web pages and taking time during the first few meetings to get to know each other. Take a roll call and attendance at each session to make sure that attendees know who is on the phone, and that you are aware of each other. Their first meeting should be staged as a welcome meeting with more rapport building than factual business. Listen and have patience. Often people from high context cultures will not offer a lot to say during meetings unless specifically called upon. If you are leading the team make a point to ask silent participants to contribute their thoughts. Understand disagreement. In high context culture-preserving harmony is a very important. When conducting business, even when amongst friends and colleagues, a persona may not express their disagreement overtly. Therefore teams need to create an environment of trust so that opinion can be expressed and also be attending to how each member expresses their opinions of agreement or disagreement. , Tips for conducting business with low context cultures: Technology tips: Low Context cultures will be comfortable with audio and textual technology means such as commercial meeting software (placeware, Web ex, emails etc). Having a factual bulleted presentation will help create the factual structure the low context person desires. Provide an outlet for opinions such as using conference call technology or a threaded discussion so that low context people can provide feedback to the team. Provide a forum for orchestrated feedback. Low context people tend to want to provide feedback and may do so randomly. This type of behavior can distract the meeting focus and have it get off track. Teams leaders should provide opportunities for team feedback but make sure to create rules around the feedback time, focus etc. Agendas are important to low context people. Make sure that you prepare an agenda discussing what the meeting is about (purpose) leaving enough time for comments and additions or changes. Once you have set an agenda make sure you stick to the agenda during the meeting and "park" tangent discussion for another session. Send presentations and material in advance. This is a good practice for working with any team regardless of contextual bias. People should know what the meeting is about and why they are attending. Don?t react. Many times a low context person?s communication style may come across as abrupt or negative and aggressive. You may feel that you should react in a negative way back or feel that you need to acquiesce. Many times the person is not aware of their abruptness or aggressiveness and that they have potentially offended you. Try to factor this in as you listen to the various communication styles and respond as if the statement stated to you was neutral. Take notes and documents. Low context people may have an abundance of opinions to share, all at once and many great ideas. It is important to documents during meetings all that are said so that it can be referred to for future meetings and concrete agreements are documented. , Tips for Teaching In A Cross-cultural Context , Listen to what the student is communicating, not to what is going on in your head. The "psychological noise" all of us experience daily includes such things as preoccupation with other things, self-concept, past experiences, stereotypes, and attitudes toward others. , Avoid expressing approval or disapproval. Try to use descriptive terms such as "creative," "innovative," or "commendable" rather than "good," "that's interesting," or "that's fine." , Be specific and use examples. Try to substitute more precise words for vague ones. , Comment on strengths as well as weaknesses. Instead of writing "awkward," "needs improving," or "expand," comment on what the student has already done well and provide specific examples on how to improve their work. , Examine your communication skills and habits. Check to see if you make eye contact with all the students and whether you call upon them equally or only upon a select few. , Check your perceptions before you make any interpretations about the behaviors of others. For example, a smile can mean many things, such as "I am happy," "I am sorry," or "I am nervous." A nod can mean "I agree," "I accept," or "I respect your authority and opinion." , Listen to what is not being said. Pay attention to the nonverbal behaviors in the classroom. What are the students communicating through their silence? Don't assume that everyone understands. Check it out. For example: "I am noticing a lot of blank stares; am I going too fast?" Or have the students write a brief summary of the material you have just presented. , Admit your own insecurities and ignorance regarding foreign (unfamiliar) cultures. Accept the fact that we all make mistakes. Take time to learn more about your students and the various cultural groups they represent. , Recognize the students' anxieties and their need to preserve their cultural identity. Question the absoluteness of your values and premises. Be sensitive, supportive, and at the same time recognize your own limitations. , Be cognizant of your own stereotypes and prejudices. Become more alert to the ways in which cultural conditioning shapes your value judgments and influences your behavior. Be aware of your perceptions of your students. , Become more suspicious of your own "wisdom." Your students come from a wide variety of backgrounds and bring with them a wealth of information. Remain open to learning from them and they will teach you well. 文化差异的五项指标 , 那么，不同国家的文化差异，究竟应该怎样来表示呢,霍夫斯坦特(Hofstede)从 其调查数据的 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 中，得出了以下描述各种文化差异的指标: , 一、权力距离(power distance) , 权力距离即在一个组织当中，权力的集中程度和领导的独裁程度，以及一个社 会在多大的程度上可以接受组织当中这种权力分配的不平等，在企业当中可以理解 为员工和管理者之间的社会距离。一种文化究竟是大的权力距离还是小的权力距离， 必然会从该社会内权力大小不等的成员的价值观中反映出来。因此研究社会成员的 价值观，就可以判定一个社会对权力差距的接受程度。 , 例如，美国是权力距离相对较小的国家，美国员工倾向于不接受管理特权的观 念，下级通常认为上级是“和我一样的人”。所以在美国，员工与管理者之间更平等， 关系也更融洽，员工也更善于学习、进步和超越自我，实现个人价值。中国相对而 言，是权力距离较大的国家，在这里地位象征非常重要，上级所拥有的特权被认为 是理所应当的，这种特权大大地有助于上级对下属权力的实施。这些特点显然不利 于员工与管理者之间和谐关系的创造和员工在企业中不断地学习和进步。因而要在 中国的企业当中采纳“构建员工与管理者之间和谐的关系”以及“为员工在工作当中提 供学习的机会，使他们不断进步”这两项人本主义政策，管理者有必要在实践当中有 意识地减小企业内部权力之间的距离，才会更好地实现管理目标。 , 二、不确定性避免(uncertainty avoidance index) , 在任何一个社会中，人们对于不确定的、含糊的、前途未卜的情境，都会感到 面对的是一种威胁，从而总是试图加以防止。防止的方法很多，例如提供更大的职 业稳定性，订立更多的正规条令，不允许出现越轨的思想和行为，追求绝对真实的 东西，努力获得专门的知识等等。不同民族、国家或地区，防止不确定性的迫切程 度是不一样的。相对而言，在不确定性避免程度低的社会当中，人们普遍有一种安 全感，倾向于放松的生活态度和鼓励冒险的倾向。而在不确定性避免程度高的社会 当中，人们则普遍有一种高度的紧迫感和进取心，因而易形成一种努力工作的内心 冲动。 , 例如，日本是不确定性避免程度较高的社会，因而在日本，“全面质量管理”这 一员工广泛参与的管理形式取得了极大的成功，“终身雇佣制”也得到了很好的推行。 与此相反，美国是不确定性避免程度低的社会，同样的人本主义政策在美国企业中 则不一定行得通，比如在日本推行良好的“全面质量管理”，在美国却几乎没有成效。 中国与日本相似，也属于不确定性避免程度较高的社会，因而在中国推行员工参与 管理和增加职业稳定性的人本主义政策，应该是适合的并且是有效的。此外，不确 定性避免程度低的社会，人们较容易接受生活中固有的不确定性，能够接受更多的 意见，上级对下属的授权被执行得更为彻底，员工倾向于自主管理和独立的工作。 而在不确定性避免程度高的社会，上级倾向于对下属进行严格的控制和清晰的指示。 , 三、个人主义与集体主义(individualism versus collectivism) , “个人主义”是指一种结合松散的社会组织结构，其中每个人重视自身的价值与 需要，依靠个人的努力来为自己谋取利益。“集体主义”则指一种结合紧密的社会组 织，其中的人往往以“在群体之内”和“在群体之外”来区分，他们期望得到“群体之内” 的人员的照顾，但同时也以对该群体保持绝对的忠诚作为回报。美国是崇尚个人主 义的社会，强调个性自由及个人的成就，因而开展员工之间个人竞争，并对个人表 现进行奖励，是有效的人本主义激励政策。中国和日本都是崇尚集体主义的社会， 员工对组织有一种感情依赖，应该容易构建员工和管理者之间和谐的关系。 , 四、男性度与女性度(masculine versus feminality) , 男性度与女性度即社会上居于统治地位的价值 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 。对于男性社会而言，居于 统治地位的是男性气概，如自信武断，进取好胜，对于金钱的索取，执着而坦然; 而女性社会则完全与之相反。有趣的是，一个社会对“男子气概”的 评价 LEC评价法下载LEC评价法下载评价量规免费下载学院评价表文档下载学院评价表文档下载 越高，其男 子与女子之间的价值观差异也就越大。美国是男性度较强的国家，企业当中重大决 策通常由高层做出，员工由于频繁地变换工作，对企业缺乏认同感，因而员工通常 不会积极地参与管理。中国是一个女性度的社会，注重和谐和道德伦理，崇尚积极 入世的精神。正如我们上面的叙述，让员工积极参与管理的人本主义政策是可行的。 , 通过对上述文化四维度调查数据的分析，霍夫斯坦特证实了不同民族的文化之 间确实存在着很大的差异性，而且这种差异性是根植在人们的头脑中的，很难轻易 被改变。文化差异是由各国的历史传统以及不同的社会发展进程所产生的，表现在 社会文化的各个方面。从霍氏的各文化维度指标值中，可得出东西方的文化差异是 十分明显的，就是在同为东方文化圈的中国大陆、日本、中国香港、新加坡等也是 较明显的。就如中日两国文化都是一种集体主义导向，但两种集体主义却有较大的 不同。此外，除了民族、地域文化差异之外，不可否认，还有投资合作伙伴“公司文 化”的风格差异。可以说，公司内文化差距越大，产生文化冲突与困惑的可能性与强 度就会越来越大。 , 当然，文化差异的指标不会只有四个。但即使只考虑这四个文化差异指标，且 认为每个指标也都只有两种情况，按照排列组合来分析，也可能有68种不同的民族 文化类型。霍夫斯坦特的研究方法，和企业文化类型的多样性相兼容。 , 五、长期取向与短期取向(long vs short term orientation) , 第五个维度从对于世界各地的23个国家的学生的研究中得出。这项研究使用的 是由中国学者设计的调查问卷，可以说是注重德行而不是真理。长期取向的价值观 注重节约与坚定;短期取向的价值观尊重传统，履行社会责任，并爱„面子?。这一维 度的积极与消极的价值取向都可以在孔子的教义中找到，他是最有影响力的中国哲 学家，生活于公元前500年;然而这一维度也适用于没有儒家传统的国家。 , ? References 1(跨文化交流 Larry A. Samovar & Richard E. Porter 北京大学出版社 2004 Page46—58 2. 跨文化交际学 贾玉新 上海外语教育出版社 1997 Page 250—257 3. 跨文化交际导论 宋莉 哈尔滨工业大学出版社 2004 Page 41—53 4. 全球环境中的跨文化沟通 Linda Beamer & Iris Verner 清华大学出版社 2003 Page22 5. 跨文化交际英语教程 许力生 上海外语教育出版社 2004 Page 278—288 6. American Cultural Patterns Edward C. Stewart & Milton J.Ben nett Intercultrual Press.Inc. Page 17—45