cause and effect因果分析法

cause and effect因果 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 法 Cause and Effect Why is there global warming? What caused the AIDS epidemic? Why do you quit the job? What happens to a child after parents divorce? What effects can be attributed to phenomena such as El Nino or human cloning? Every day we are confronted with such questions, and in the process of seeking answers, we try to interpret the reasons for events, actions, or decisions, and analyze the consequences of the occurrences. By exploring the causes and effects of things, we get a deep and thorough understanding of the world around us. In a nutshell, a cause-and-effect essay is concerned with the following two aspects: why things happen — causes; and what happens as a result — effects. 6.1 Patterns of cause-and-effect essays “If you prove the cause, you at once prove the effect; and conversely nothing can exist without its cause.” As Aristotle said, causes and effects are closely related and sometimes not easily separated, for there is no such a thing as occurs without causes, nor is there any occurrence that leads to no effects. However, it is often the case that some cause-and-effect essays focus on causes, some emphasize effects, while others dwell on both. We often come across a causal chain or a domino effect, i.e., a chain formed of a cause producing a situation and this situation producing another situation and so on. Here we just give two typical examples focusing on causes and effects respectively. Focus on causes The following example deals with causes, explaining why many university graduates would rather look for jobs than start their own business despite of the difficulties in job hunting: University graduates are afraid of starting their own business, though they are fully aware of the tough job market. One critical reason is that colleges and universities train students to be employees who look for jobs rather than train entrepreneurs who create jobs and businesses. However, the skills to be a good employee are not the same skills required to be a good entrepreneur. Besides, college or university graduates either lack real life experiences or enough capital, which in turn restricts the possible range and scale of the business that they might start. And what’s more, it is often the case that many college graduates fail to survive the hardness in the first few years of their business. They work longer hours and are paid less than their employees. They become self-employed rather than business owners. Hence, many quit out of exhaustion and look for jobs elsewhere. Focus on effects The paragraph below is an example of effect analysis by George F. Kennan, American advisor and diplomat, on the aftermath of private automobile: I worry about the private automobile. It is a dirty, noisy, wasteful, and lonely means of travel. It pollutes the air, ruins the safety and sociability of the street, and exercises upon the individual a discipline which takes away far more freedom than it gives him. It causes an enormous amount of land to be unnecessarily abstracted from nature and from plant life and to become devoid of any natural function. It explodes cities, grievously impairs the whole institution of neighborliness, fragmentizes and destroys communities. It has already spelled the end of our cities as real cultural and social communities, and has made impossible the construction of any others in their place. Together with the airplane, it has crowded out other, more civilized and more convenient means of transport, leaving older people, infirm people, poor people and children in a worse situation than they were a hundred years ago. Patterns of organization: As the focus of cause-and-effect essays may vary, there are basically three patterns of organization. You should consider your purpose and apply one of them to your essay. 1. Multiple causes , Effect You start with a well-known outcome or situation and then study what caused such a result. Thesis statement: University graduates would rather look for jobs than start their own business. Cause 1 — Lack of training and skills Cause 2 — Lack of social experience and capital Cause 3 — Hardships of maintaining business 2. Cause , Multiple effects In this pattern, you start by describing the event and then analyze its consequences. Thesis statement: Watching horror movies has a great impact on children. First group of effects — psychological Second group of effects — physiological 3. Causal chain / Domino In this pattern, the events lead to one another, as in the following organization: Thesis statement: The overrun of automobiles endangers the human existence. First domino — Automobiles give off exhaust gas which contains carbon dioxide. Second domino — Carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere and traps heat. Third domino — Trapped heat creates the green house effect and leads to global warming. Last domino — Global warming changes the climate and results in the rise of sea level, which endangers the human existence. 6.2 Conventions of cause-and-effect essays 1. A cause-and-effect essay has a clear purpose. An effective cause-and-effect essay informs the reader clearly about the purpose: whether the essay is exploring causes, effects or both. Of course, depending on your topic, you will choose a particular focus. If you are going to explain why you are planning to emigrate, your essay would focus mainly on the causes of your decision. If you want to describe the impact of television on children, your essay would then focus on the effects of TV. However, in order to give an in-depth analysis of the Cold War, you need to discuss both the causes and effects. 2. A cause-and-effect essay shows correct relationships. A cause-and-effect essay depends on the writer’s ability to connect the reasons the things happen and the consequences they might have. The one caution you have to keep in mind is to avoid logical fallacy. Be sure not to be logically simplistic when considering the causes or draw a faulty conclusion from unestablished causes. For instance, it is far from convincing to say that the arts of China have declined because of Western influence. Other intervening causes should be taken into consideration. 3. A cause-and-effect essay contains convincing evidence. A cause-and-effect essay should be dedicated to the analyses of reasons and outcomes. It contains adequate source materials and examples to show research and understanding of the topic covered instead of simply giving a list of reasons and outcomes. 6.3 Strategies of cause-and-effect analysis 1. Use a proper point of view. In order to strengthen cause-and-effect analysis, it is ultimately important to maintain a professional and reasonable voice within the entire essay. Try to avoid using the first person, for it may seem that the writer is justifying his own point of view and will make the writing weak, unless you are an established authority. 2. Choose the most significant causes or effects. There may be several causes or effects of a situation. However, it is advisable to analyze no more than three causes or effects, and present them in the scope of your writing, devoting a separate paragraph for each point. In this way, you can explore each cause or effect thoroughly. 3. Define a clear order of organization. Because a cause-and-effect essay needs a readily identifiable structure, you will basically write the essay in chronological order or the order of importance. For example, causal chain reveals a typical chronological order as events take place one after another. If you try to discuss the causes of Internet addiction, you might then follow the order of importance, generally from least to most important. Sometimes, however, you can also use a reverse chronological order or go from the most important factor to the least. 4. Use indicators of causes and effects when necessary Transitional words indicating the causes or effects make things easier for the reader to follow. The most frequently used words showing causes are: because, since, for, due to, owing to the fact that, etc.; and transitions showing effects are: so, consequently, therefore, hence, thus, as a result, etc. Celebrities can sometimes be extremely stressed due to the competitive nature of their occupations. The occupations of celebrities are competitive in nature; therefore, celebrities can sometimes be extremely stressed. 6.4 Writing a cause-and-effect essay 1. Prewriting Determine the purpose. Prior to writing, you need to decide what type of cause-and-effect essay you will write. Ask whether you’re exploring 1) causes; 2) effects; and 3) both causes and effects. For example, a student would like to write an essay on domestic violence. In order to give a comprehensive description of the matter, he decided to tackle both the causes and effects. Establish cause-and-effect connection. List the event or issue you want to address. Then brainstorm to generate ideas about either its causes or its effects. For example, the student mentioned above made the following list for the effects of domestic violence: sleeping disorders anxiety feel lonely drug abuse commit suicide miscarriages or premature delivery neglect children children fail in study children become violent or quiet a problem for the government Write an outline. After reviewing the list, the student decided to arrange the effects above into three major categories. The item “a problem for the government” can fit none of the three categories and was later not considered in the essay. Here is the student’s outline: Issue to address: Domestic Violence Causes: 1. Psychological causes a. Personality traits b. Mental characteristics 2. Social causes a. Family structure b. Social stress Effects: 1. Physical and psychological problem of the abused 2. Effects on women in particular 3. Effects on children 2. Writing a first draft Introduction: The introduction should bring the reader up to date with the phenomenon being discussed. Therefore, you should provide background information. In some cases, it may be necessary to define or even prove the existence of a phenomenon before discussing the cause and effect. State clearly in your thesis statement whether you’re discussing causes, effects or both. Use the terms like “cause”, “effect”, “reasons”, “why”, “consequences”, “impact”, etc. to give clues. Development: The body of your cause-and-effect essay should contribute to the analyses of reasons and results. No matter what you may emphasize, the causes or the effects of a situation, the structure of the essay should be distinct and serves your purpose. The major causes or effects should be discussed in detail in a logical way, following a proper order. Usually, in a traditional five paragraph essay, we give one paragraph to each of the three causes or effects. However, if you are writing on both the causes and effects, say, of domestic violence, you probably want to give one paragraph to causes and another one to effects. But you may run a risk of generalization. Be sure to provide sufficient evidence. Use transitions between causative triggers and produced effects to make your writing coherent. Conclusion: It might be enough to make a summary of the causes or effects in your essay. Point out causes or effects that are either not dealt with in your paper or ignored by people, and then suggest a further study of them. This kind of conclusion gives the reader fresh insight. Make a call for action based on the causes or effects that you have perceived. The student essay below, for example, ends with a plea for the intervening of the justice system to curb domestic violence. 3. Revising a cause-and-effect essay After you finish the first draft, make sure to ask yourself the following questions: Does this paper have a clearly stated thesis concerning the causes or effects of an event or a situation? Is each cause or effect analyzed in the paper supported by solid, sufficient details? Does this paper have an appropriate pattern of organization? Are there transitions to show the order of causes or effects? Have I used words to indicate the causes or effects? Are the sentences error-free? The following is a student essay: Domestic Violence Domestic violence usually involves men or women abusing their partners. It isn’t just hitting, or fighting, or having arguments occasionally. It takes many forms, including threats, intimidation, isolation, and emotional and sexual abuse. People become abusive because they want to have power and control in the relationship. Then why do people need to feel that they have such power, and what results can it lead to? There are many different theories as to the causes of domestic violence. Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender. Those include sudden bursts of anger, poor impulse control, and poor self esteem. Studies have found high incidence of psychopathy among abusers, and various theories suggest that personality disorders are factors of domestic violence. However, social theories consider external factors in the offender’s environment, such as family structure and social stress. For example, a child exposed to the violence in family tends to be more violent as an adult. And social stresses, due to prolonged unemployment or other such problems may increase tensions and conflicts in the family. Couples in poverty are likely to experience domestic violence because of finances difficulties or for fear of losing honor and respect. As a result, they may turn to violence as ways to relieve stress and maintain power. Domestic violence can devastate people’s lives. People who suffer from abuse may have many problems such as sleeping disorders, anxiety attacks, and feelings of abandonment and are more likely to use drugs or attempt suicide. Women are at higher risk of miscarriages or premature delivery. Domestic violence can also impair their ability to take care of the children because they may become so depressed and preoccupied with the violence. Children who witness domestic violence may develop serious emotional, behavioral, developmental, or academic problems. As children, they may become violent themselves, or withdraw. Some act out at home or school; others try to be the perfect children. Domestic violence was historically viewed as a private family matter that police officers were often reluctant to intervene. However, in order to curb the situation, along with medical treatment, we must fill the voids in the justice system to protect victims. Comment On the whole, this is an acceptable cause-and-effect essay, meeting most of the requirements for this type of writing. It has a clearly stated thesis (“Then why do people need to feel that they have such power, and what results can it lead to?”), which makes it known to the reader that this essay focuses on both the causes and the effects of domestic violence. Also, in the introduction, before presenting the thesis statement, the student gave a brief description of domestic violence to orient the reader. The two paragraphs in the body discuss the causes and the effects of domestic violence respectively, following different patterns of organization, as is clearly revealed by the topic sentences in these two paragraphs: The topic sentence of paragraph 2 (There are many different theories as to the causes of domestic violence.) suggests that the writer is going to explore causes, while the topic sentence of paragraph 3 (Domestic violence can devastate people’s lives.) shows the write will then turn to effect analysis. It is also good for the student to sort the causes and the effects of domestic violence into different categories, and thus develop the essay in a logical way, which is clearly shown in the outline. In addition, the student used proper transitional words such as “however”, “as a result”, “due to”, and “because of” to create the right relationship, and made the essay coherent. The essay also has a conventional ending with a call for action — a plea for the intervening of the justice system to curb domestic violence. Finally, we can notice in the essay a wide range of vocabulary and a variety of sentence structures, which contribute to effective writing. However, there is one problem: the essay is not sufficiently supported. Though the student did include theories to prove the causes he advanced in paragraph 2, some of the causes and effects mentioned in this essay still have not been thoroughly explored. For example, the point “Children who witness domestic violence may develop serious emotional, behavioral, developmental, or academic problems.” is not fully supported by the subsequent explanations. More specific details should be added to further explore the causes and effects of domestic violence. 6.5 A professional essay to consider The Decay of Friendship Samuel Johnson Life has no pleasure higher or nobler than that of friendship. It is painful to consider that this 1 sublime enjoyment may be impaired or destroyed by innumerable causes, and that there is no human possession of which the duration is less certain. Many have talked in very exalted language, of the perpetuity of friendship, of invincible constancy, 2 and unalienable kindness; and some examples have been seen of men who have continued faithful to their earliest choice, and whose affection has predominated over changes of fortune, and contrariety of opinion. But these instances are memorable, because they are rare. The friendship which is to be practiced or expected by common mortals, must take its rise from mutual pleasure, and must end when the power ceases of delighting each other. Many accidents therefore may happen by which the ardor of kindness will be abated, without 3 criminal baseness or contemptible inconstancy on either part. To give pleasure is not always in our power; and little does he know himself who believes that he can be always able to receive it. Those who would gladly pass their days together may be separated by the different course of their 4 affairs; and friendship, like love, is destroyed by long absence, though it may be increased by short intermissions. What we have missed long enough to want it, we value more when it is regained; but that which has been lost till it is forgotten, will be found at last with little gladness, and with still less if a substitute has supplied the place. A man deprived of the companion to whom he used to open his bosom, and with whom he shared the hours of leisure and merriment, feels the day at first hanging heavy on him; his difficulties oppress, and his doubts distract him; he sees time come and go without his wonted gratification, and all is sadness within, and solitude about him. But this uneasiness never lasts long; necessity produces expedients, new amusements are discovered, and new conversation is admitted. No expectation is more frequently disappointed than that which naturally arises in the mind from 5 the prospect of meeting an old friend after long separation. We expect the attraction to be revived, and the coalition to be renewed; no man considers how much alteration time has made in himself, and very few inquire what effect it has had upon others. The first hour convinces them that the pleasure which they have formerly enjoyed, is forever at an end; different scenes have made different impressions; the opinions of both are changed; and that similitude of manners and sentiment is lost which confirmed them both in the approbation of themselves. Friendship is often destroyed by opposition of interest, not only by the ponderous and visible 6 interest which the desire of wealth and greatness forms and maintains, but by a thousand secret and slight competitions, scarcely known to the mind upon which they operate. There is scarcely any man without some favorite trifle which he values above greater attainments, some desire of petty praise which he cannot patiently suffer to be frustrated. This minute ambition is sometimes crossed before it is known, and sometimes defeated by wanton petulance; but such attacks are seldom made without the loss of friendship, for whoever has once found the vulnerable part will always be feared, and the resentment will burn on in secret, of which shame hinders the discovery. This, however, is a slow malignity, which a wise man will obviate as inconsistent with quiet, and a 7 good man will repress as contrary to virtue; but human happiness is sometimes violated by some more sudden strokes. A dispute begun in jest upon a subject which a moment before was on both parts regarded with 8 careless indifference, is continued by the desire of conquest, till vanity kindles into rage, and opposition rankles into enmity. Against this hasty mischief, I know not what security can be obtained; men will be sometimes surprised into quarrels; and though they might both haste into reconciliation, as soon as their tumult had subsided, yet two minds will seldom be found together, which can at once subdue their discontent, or immediately enjoy the sweets of peace without remembering the wounds of the conflict. Friendship has other enemies. Suspicion is always hardening the cautious, and disgust repelling 9 the delicate. Very slender differences will sometimes part those whom long reciprocation of civility or beneficence has united. Lonelove and Ranger retired into the country to enjoy the company of each other, and returned in six weeks, cold and petulant; Ranger’s pleasure was to walk in the fields, and Lonelove’s to sit in a bower; each had complied with the other in his turn, and each was angry that compliance had been exacted. The most fatal disease of friendship is gradual decay, or dislike hourly increased by causes too 10 slender for complaint, and too numerous for removal. Those who are angry may be reconciled; those who have been injured may receive a recompense: but when the desire of pleasing and willingness to be pleased is silently diminished, the renovation of friendship is hopeless; as, when the vital powers sink into languor, there is no longer any use of the physician. Classroom Activity Answer the following questions: What is the thesis statement of this essay? Write down the beginning words here: _______________________________________________________________________. In paragraph 2, when putting forward the first cause under discussion, the author uses the method of __________. illustration contrast statistics Which of the following statement best summarizes the meaning of the topic sentence for paragraph 4? Those who would gladly pass their days together may be separated by the different course of their affairs. Friendship, like love, is destroyed by long absence. Friendship may be increased by short intermissions. In paragraph 6, the transitional word used to show the cause of the loss of friendship is _________. Which paragraph functions as a transition between causes of the decay of friendship? Paragraph _________. The transitional word signaling this function is _________. In paragraph 9, what example is cited to support the idea that “friendship has other enemies”? ______________________________________________________________________. The essay concludes with _________. A final thought on friendship and a summary of the causes of the decay of friendship a suggestion as how to preserve friendship a question inviting other causes of the decay of friendship This essay gives fives causes for the decay of friendship. Fill out the outline below with the missing paragraph numbers: Introduction Paragraph 1 Cause 1 Paragraph(s) 2-3 Cause 2 Paragraph(s) Cause 3 Paragraph(s) Cause 4 Paragraph(s) Cause 5 Paragraph(s) Conclusion Paragraph Summarize the five causes of decayed or destroyed friendship? The desire or power of pleasing and willingness to be pleased is diminished or ceased. ___________________________________________________________________. ___________________________________________________________________. ___________________________________________________________________. ___________________________________________________________________. The language of this essay is clear and concise, for the author uses a lot of _________ structure like “We expect the attraction to be revived, and the coalition to be renewed” in paragraph 5. Look for some other examples of the same usage of language: _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. Comment Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) was an English author. Beginning as a journalist, he made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, novelist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. In “The Decay of Friendship” (1758), of the “innumerable causes” of decayed or destroyed friendship, Samuel Johnson examines five in particular. The essay is a good example of cause analysis, starting from advancing a phenomenon and then to the exploration of its causes. It is well organized. In the introductory paragraph, Samuel Johnson goes straight to the point of the essay, the causes of the decay of friendship. The body part covers eight paragraphs, mainly dealing with five causes. Each cause is presented with a topic sentence followed by detailed support. For example, the topic sentence in paragraph 6 ( Friendship is often destroyed by opposition of interest, not only by…but by…) brings up the third cause and explanations; in paragraph 8, the experience how “a dispute begun in jest” turns into hostility supports the fourth course, that friendship is sometimes destroyed by some sudden strokes; in paragraph 9, the topic sentence “Friendship has other enemies.” reveals the last cause of the decay of friendship, and is further illustrated by the case of “Lonelove and Ranger”. The concluding paragraph ends with a final thought and a summary of the whole essay, pointing out “the most fatal disease of friendship” and the result — “the renovation of friendship is hopeless”. To tie the whole piece of writing together, Samuel Johnson also uses transitional words and sentences (e.g., paragraph 7). The ideas in the essay are presented logically. The language is very effective, vivid and varied, yet clear and concise, greatly due to the parallel structure of sentences, like “Suspicion is always hardening the cautious, and disgust repelling the delicate”, “Those who are angry may be reconciled; those who have been injured may receive a recompense”, etc. Assignment 1. Provide brief causes or effects for the statements below. You first need to decide whether you are going to write a cause or an effect analysis. Then provide clear, separate, and convincing items for each statement. 1) Many post-graduate students hate English. __________: (Causes or effects?) a. . b. . c. . 2) Internet has changed people’s lives in many ways. __________: (Causes or effects?) a. . b. . c. . 2. Write a cause-and-effect essay on one of the following topics. Use specific evidence to support a series of reasons and/or effects. Why you selected your major Why you want to be a teacher The causes of stress on postgraduate students What are the effects of beauty/ugliness/wealth/poverty on an individual The impact of population boom The results of drug abuse Why earthquakes/global warming happen and what the consequences are The causes and effects of depression The causes and effects of farmers moving into cities 3. Write a cause-and-effect essay to comment on a story, an essay or a film. For example, you can write to explain the reasons for the excellence or mediocrity of a film such as Forrest Gump. You can also write to show the effect the film had on you. You can write about both if you want.