老师整理的翻译笔记

翻译理论知识概要 第一部分：翻译术语 1. Definitions of translation Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives. (1). Linguistic Views on Translation Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts. Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20). Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12). Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5). (2). Cultural Views on Translation In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation". Translation is a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages {Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:35). A translator who uses a cultural approach is simply recognizing that each language contains elements which are derived from its culture (such as greetings, fixed expressions and REALIA), that every text is anchored in a specific culture, and that conventions of text production and reception vary from culture to culture (Shuttleworth & Cowie1997:35). For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function. (Nida, 2001:82). 翻译不仅涉及语言问 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 ,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化, 还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但是不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。 (3).Literary Views on Translation Translators who hold this view believe that translation is an artistic recreation or a recreated art. Some modern Western scholars from the literary school take literary translation to be "the manipulation or rewriting of the source texts". 文学翻译的任务是要把原作中包含的一定社会生活的映象完好无损地从一种语言移注到另一种语言中, 在翻译过程中追求语言的艺术美, 再现原作的艺术性。用茅盾的话说, 是"使读者在读译文的时候能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受"。 语言是塑造文学形象的工具, 因而文学的形象性特征必然要在语言上表现出来。文学语言的特征, 诸如形象、生动、鲜明、含蓄、凝练、准确、风趣、幽默、辛辣、滑稽、悦耳、民族特点、地方色彩, 还有行业习语、民间的俚语、谚语等等, 都是作家根据塑造形象的需要, 从现实生活中提炼创造出来的。文学作品的艺术形式与思想 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 是辩证统一的, 翻译要保存原作风格特点, 因此要求译文生动形象、形神毕肖、雅俗等同、简洁精美、词情并茂(《译学辞典》2004: 291)。 (4). Semantic Views on Translation This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):"Translating means translating meaning". Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5). Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22). In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author's original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151). (5).Functional Views on Translation Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client,  the reader as wellas the purpose or use of the translation: It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator's, i.e.client's needs (Baker,2001:236). (6).Communicative Views on Translation This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context. Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22). Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient. A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text's original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21). The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation. Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity. 2. Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or Translation Theorists Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation. (1). 严复 (1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation 信 (faithfulness): 忠实准确 达 (expressiveness}: 通顺流畅 雅 (elegance): 文字古雅 Yan Fu put forward this "Three-character Guide” in his preface to the translation of T.H. Huxley's book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言 1898): 译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉...... 易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。...... Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant. It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.…… The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if one's language lacks grace, it won't go far. These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance. I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer's ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today. Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different …… Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance" has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve "elegance". Yan Fu's criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles. Despite this, Yan’s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed. Nowadays to many translators, "elegance" implies "the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original”(黄龙, 1988:90) or "运用读者所最乐于接受的文体, 使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响"(劳陇，《翻译通讯》1983年第10期). (2). 鲁迅 信（faithfulness) 顺（smoothness) 翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换他的衣裳，却不该削低他的鼻子，剜掉他的眼睛(《鲁迅全集》第6卷，48页)。 (3). 林语堂 忠实{faithfulness) 通顺(smoothness) 美(beautifulness) 翻译的 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 问题，大概包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的"译事三难"，大体上是正相比符的。……我们并须记得这所包括的就是：第一、译者对原文方面的问题，第二、译者对中文方面的问题，第三、是翻译与艺术文的问题。以译者所负的责任言，第一是译者对原著者的责任，第二是译者对中国读者的责任，第三是译者对艺术的责任。三样的责任全备，然后可以谓具有真正译家的资格。(《论翻译》,林语堂名著全集,1995:306) (4). 傅雷:神似 (resemblance in spirit) 以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老头》重译本序，1951) (5). 钱钟 书 关于书的成语关于读书的排比句社区图书漂流公约怎么写关于读书的小报汉书pdf ：化境 (reaching the acme of perfection) 文学翻译的最高境界是"化"，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于"化境"。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的"投胎转世"(the transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。(《林纾的翻译》，1964) (6). 刘重德：信（faithhlness） 达（expressiveness） 切（closeness) 信于内容 (to be faithful to the content of the original); 达如其分 (to be as expressive as the original); 切合风格 (to be as close to the original style as possible). (《浑金璞玉集》，1994: 9) (7). 许渊冲：三重标准 (three levels of criteria) (《翻译的艺术》，1984: 26) 标 准 低标准 中标准 高标准 内容忠实(信) 明确 准确 精确 (三似) 意似 形似 神似 (三化) 浅化 等化 深化 形式通顺(达) 易懂 通顺 扬长(雅,或传神) (8). Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation Alexander F.Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790): 1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work (译作应该完全传达原作的思想)； 2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the original (译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)； 3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition(译作应当和原作一样流畅). Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second . (9). Eugene A. Nida (奈达): Functional Equivalence (功能对等) Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87): 1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度). 2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. (最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文). 3. Classification of translation (1). Jakobson (1896-1982) 1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. 2)   Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. 3)   Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems. e.g. 1) 原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!” 译文一: 孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？” (徐志刚 译) 译文二: The Master said，"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt， Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 译) [点评] 原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译 (intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述 (rewording)。原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译 (interlingual translation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。 2) 原文：A: What does your watch say? B: It says “five past three”. [点评] 在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点钟了。而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息 (non-linguistic message)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于"符号系统"(即用于交际的系统)。雅可布逊 Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者 (Hervey et.al 1995:8-9). (2). Peter Newmark (纽马克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交际翻译与语义翻译) Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39): 1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果). 2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义). (3). Christiane Nord “译文的功能并非由分析原文自动得出，而是由跨文化传意的目的决定的”。（Nord,1991:9）而译文可以按照其传意功能分为两种类型，一种是能在目标文化的新情景中独立地起传意作用的工具；另一种是纪录作者与原文接受者如何在来源文化里传意的文献。换言之，翻译有两种方法：工具性翻译和文献性翻译。 a) 工具性翻译 (instrumental translation)有三种： 1）等功能翻译：对目标读者发挥原文功能，例如，使用说明书； 2）异功能翻译：发挥相似功能，例如把《格列佛游记》翻译给儿童阅读； 3）相应翻译：在目标文学语境中再现原文在来源文学语境中的功能，以发挥与原文相应的效果，常见于诗歌翻译。 b) 文献性翻译(documental translation) 1）逐字翻译：再现原语系统； 2）字面翻译：再现原文形式； 3）语文学翻译：结合字面翻译和文外阐释，再现原文的形式和内容； 4） 异化翻译：保留原文的文化背景，给译文接受者营造异国情调（Nord,1997:47-52； 1991：73） 4. Nature and Scope of Translation What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill. Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation", for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent "'fanyi" sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself. If the word "translation" refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators. Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc. , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation（全文翻译）, abridged translation（摘译）or adapted translation（编译）. 5. Principles or Criteria of Translation The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s "three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、达、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance ). In the past decades Mr. Yan's principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead. Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅". According to them, "雅" means far more than the English word "elegance". Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor. The second group, however, argues that the word "雅" is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr. Yan Fu's principle, it discards the character "雅" and tries to find some other new criteria instead. Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、达、切 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、达、贴 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own. Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation (化境). The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator's smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader. Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy（忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general. By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries. 6. Literal Translation and Free Translation The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations. The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences"; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile's tears, armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen's agreement, and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎 (paper tiger), 一国两制 (one country, two systems