英语写作之Paragraph

PartFourTheParagraphContentsofThisPartI.CriteriaofaneffectiveparagraphII.StepsinwritingaparagraphIII.WaysofdevelopingparagraphsWhatisaparagraph?Aparagraphisaunitofthought.Paragraphsvaryinlength.CriteriaofanEffectiveParagraphunifiedcoherentwelldevelopedUnityCoherenceTransition/DevelopmentUnityAparagraphisacomponentpartofanessay.Eachparagraphhasonlyonetheme,sowhatiswrittenshouldbecloselyrelatedtothetheme.Thecentralthemeisusuallysummarizedinthetopicsentence.Placeoftopicsentence:beginning,middle,end,implied.PleaseidentifythetopicsentenceineachparagraphSample1CaliforniansandNewEnglandersarebothAmerican.Theyspeakthesamelanguageandabidebythesamelaws.However,theyareverydifferentintheirwaysoflife.MobilityhasmadeagreatimpressiononthecultureofCalifornians,lackofmobilityisthemarkofthecustomsandmoralityofNewEnglanders.Sample2Sample3BeginningEndImpliedMiddleHowtowriteagoodtopicsentence?1.Atopicsentenceshouldbeneithertoogeneralnortoospecific.Ifitistoogeneral,thereadercannottellexactlywhattheparagraphisgoingtodiscuss.Ifitistoospecific,thewritermaynothaveanythinglefttowriteaboutintherestoftheparagraph.主 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 句既不能太笼统，也不能太详细。前者会使要讨论的内容不明确，后者会影响开展下文。Example:Americanfoodistastelessandgreasy(油腻的)becauseAmericansusetoomanycanned,frozenandprepackagedfoodsandbecausetheyfryeverythinginoilorbutter.Americanfoodisterrible.Americanfoodistastelessandgreasy.ToospecificGoodToogeneral2.Donotinvolvetoomanyrelatedideasinyourtopicsentence;ifyoudo,yourparagraphwillnotbeunified.主题句中不应包含过多的意思，以免影响段落的统一性。SanFranciscoisfamousforitstemperateclimate,itsmanytouristattractionsanditscosmopolitan(世界性的)atmosphere.SanFranciscoisfamousforitstemperateclimate/manytouristattractions/cosmopolitanatmosphere.ToomanyideasGoodHomeworkTask3Supplyatopicsentenceforeachparagraph.CoherenceThesentencesinaparagraphshouldbearrangedinaclear,logicalorder.Aparagraphiscoherentwheneachsentenceinitnaturallyleadstothenextsentenceinexplaininganddevelopingthecentralidea.Sample4TransitionGoodtransitionsshouldbeusedtomakeonesentencerunsmoothlytoanotherWaysoftransition:TransitionWaysoftransition:usingparallelstructuresrepeatingwordsorwordgroupsusingpronounstorefertonounsinprecedingsentencesbeingconsistentinthepersonandnumberofnounsandpronouns,andthetenseofverbsusingtransitionalexpressionsDetailsonPage68TransitionalwordsAddition:also,again,aswellas,besides,coupledwith,furthermore,inaddition,likewise,moreover,coupledwith,togetherwithConsequence:accordingly,asaresult,consequently,forthisreason,forthispurpose,hence,otherwise,sothen,subsequently,therefore,thus,whereforeGeneralizing:asarule,asusual,forthemostpart,generally,generallyspeaking,ordinarily,usuallyExemplifying:forexample,forinstance,suchas,markedly,namely,including,foronething,illustratedwith,,inthiscaseEmphasis:aboveall,chiefly,especially,specifically,withattentionto,particularly,inparticularDirection:here,there,overthere,beyond,nearly,opposite,under,above,totheleft,totheright,inthedistanceException:asidefrom,besides,except,exceptfor,excluding,exclusiveof,otherthan,outsideofRestatement:inessence,inotherwords,namely,thatis,thatistosay,inshort,inbrief,toputitdifferentlyContrastandComparison:comparatively,identically,likewise,similarly,incontrast,conversely,instead,ononehand,ontheotherhand,onthecontrary,rather,yet,but,however,still,neverthelessSequence:atfirst,firstofall,tobeginwith,inthefirstplace,atthesametime,fornow,forthetimebeing,thenextstep,inturn,lateron,meanwhile,next,then,soon,themeantime,later,while,earlier,simultaneously,afterward,finallySummarizing:allinall,allthingsconsidered,brieflyspeaking,byandlarge,inanycase,inanyevent,inbrief,inconclusion,onthewhole,inshort,insummary,inthefinalanalysis,inthelongrun,tosumup,tosummarizeStepsinWritingaParagraphStep1:Giveatopicsentence(Thinkofthethemeormainidea,andexpressitinacompletesentence)Step2:Thinkofthedetailsorexamplesorfactsthatmaybeusedtosupportorexplainthemainidea.Step3:Workoutanoutlinetoarrangethedetailsorexamplesorfactsinlogicalorder.ThreemainpartsofaparagraphGO=TopicSentenceContinue=SupportingSentenceStop=ConcludingSentenceWhatkindofhealthproblemsdoescigarettesmokingcause？Weallknowthatcigarettesmokingisadangeroushabitbecauseitcauseshealthproblems．Doctorssayitcanbeadirectcauseofcancerofthelungsandthroatandcanalsocontributetocancerofotherorgans．Inaddition，itcanbringaboutotherhealthproblemssuchasheartandlungdiseases．Itisclearlyidentifiedasoneofthechiefcausesofdeathinoursociety．Mymotherhaspassedalongtomecertainrulesforgettingalongwithothers.Don'targuewithparents;theywillthinkyoudon'tlovethem.Don'targuewithchildren;theywillthinkthemselvesvictimized.Don'targuewithspouses;theywillthinkyouareatiresomemate.Don'targuewithstrangers;theywillthinkyouarenotfriendly.Mymother'srules,infact,canbesummedupintwowords:Don'targue.Whatisthebesttopicsentence?1.Mexicoisaninterestingcountry.2.HismanyreformsmadeMexicoafairer,moremodernsociety.3.Benito(1806-1872)isanationalheroinMexico.Functionofaparagraph主题（atopic）作者的观点（anopinionorstatement）Thebenefitsofparticipatinginsportsarenumerous.Myfavoriteprogramis“Friend”.Ienjoytheprogramsaboutrealpeopleandrealexperience.Thetwopurposesofatopicsentence:1.tostatethetopic,togivethemainidea2.tograbthereader’sattentionsothereaderwantstogoonPeopleviewmoneydifferently.Somepeopleconsidermoneytherootofallevil.Featuresofthetopicsentence1.itshapestheentireparagraphbydefiningitscontents2.itestablishestheparagraph’sorganization3.ithasmanyformsFeaturesofthetopicsentence1.主题句应具有概括性，而扩展句需要具体。Eachprogramwillfocusonaparticularfriendwhocanbeeitheracelebrityoraneverydayperson.Friendisaverypopulartalkshow.Thecostofmakingfakeproductsisusuallylowerthanrealones.Wehavetowonderwhyfakeproductsaresoprevalent.2.主题句应是一种观点而不是一个具体的事实。Manycollegestudentsdopart-timejob.Manycollegestudentsdopart-timejobsforvariousreasons.Manypeoplebuypiratedproductsbecausethepriceismuchlowerthanlegalones.Thereasonwhypeoplebuypiratedproductsisvarious.Commonformsforparagraph1）肯定句（AffirmativeSentence）Example：Theneedforwildlifeprotectionisgreaternowthaneverbefore．2）反诘句（RhetoricalSentence）Example：Howdoyouthinkpeoplewillsolvetheproblemofwildlifeprotection？3）不完整句（Fragments）Example：Andtheworkingman？Supplyatopicsentenceforeachofthefollowingparagraphs:____________________________________…Red,forexample,isthecoloroffire,heat,bloodandlife.Peoplesayredisanexcitingandactivecolor.Theyassociateredwithastrongfeelinglikeanger.Redisalsousedforsignsofdanger,suchasstopsignsandfireengines.Orangeisthebright,warmcolorofleavesinautumn.Peoplesayorangeisalivelycolor.Theyassociateorangewithhappiness.Yellowisthecolorofsunlight.Peoplesayitisacheerfulcolor.Theyassociateyellow,too,withhappiness.Greenisthecoolcolorofgrassinspring.Peoplesayitisarefreshingcolor._____________________________________________Itistheroadwhichdeterminesthesitesofmanycitiesandthegrowthandnourishmentofall.Itistheroadwhichcontrolsthedevelopmentofstrategiesandfixesthesitesofbattles.Itistheroadthatgivesitsframe-worktoalleconomicdevelopment.Itistheroadwhichisthechannelofalltrade,and,whatismoreimportant,ofallideas.Initsmosthumblefunctionitisanecessaryguidewithoutwhichprogressfromplacetoplacewouldbeaceaselessexperiment;itisasustenancewithoutwhichorganizedsocietywouldbeimpossible,thustheroadmovesandcontrolsallhistory.SupportingSentence主题句的后面必须要跟上几个支持句用来进一步阐述、解释、说明主题句。可以用具体的事例、证据或进一步论证的手法来达到支持主题句的目的。一个段落的支持句有主要支持句(majorsupportingsentences)和次要支持句(minorsupportingsentences)之分。　　例1：(主题句)Thereareseveralfactorsaffectingclimate.(推展句1)Onefactoristhemountofsunlightreceived.(推展句2)Altitude,ortheheightabovesealevel,alsodeterminesclimate.(推展句3)Theoceanshaveaneffectontheclimateofadjacentland.(推展句4)Inaddition,climateisinfluencedbythegeneralcirculationoftheatmosphere.(主题句)Idon'tteachbecauseteachingiseasyforme.(主要推展句1)TeachingisthemostdifficultofthevariouswaysIhaveattemptedtoearnmyliving:mechanic,carpenter,writer.(主要推展句2)Forme,teachingisared-eye,sweaty-palm,sinking-stomachprofession.(次要推展句1)Red-eye,becauseIneverfeelreadytoteachnomatterhowlateIstayuppreparing.(次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm,becauseI'malwaysnervousbeforeIentertheclassroom,surethatIwillbefoundoutforthefoolthatIam.(次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach,becauseIleavetheclassroomanhourlaterconvincedthatIwasevenmoreboringthanusual.习作评析CanMoneyBuyHappiness有人认为金钱是幸福之本（sourceofhappiness）也有人认为金钱是万恶之源（rootofallevil）我的看法（myopinion）Somesaythatsocietytodayisbasedonmoney.Thereisno(主题句)questionthatmoneyisimportantinourlives.Peopleview（主题句）（转折句）moneydifferently.Somepeopleconsidermoneyasourceof(主题句)happiness.Tothem,moneyiseverything.Theydreamof（主要支持句）（次要支持句）luxuryhomes,clothes,jewelry,etc.Inotherwords,they（次要支持句）dreamofaluxuriouslifestyle.Theycannotimaginelife（次要支持句）withoutmoneyandmaterialthings.Task10Topicsentence:PhilatelyisaninterestinghobbyTheoutlineis:1)Therearebeautifulpicturesonpostagestamps;2)Thereareportraitsofhistoricalfiguresonthem;3)ItisalwaysadelighttogetastampIhaveneverseenbefore;4)IcanlearnsomethingbylookingatthestampsIhavecollected.PlanningaParagraphPhilatelyisaninterestinghobby.EverytimeIopenmyalbumsandlookatthestampsI’vecollectedovertheyears,Ilearnsomethingnew.Onmanyofthemareprinteddrawingsorpicturesofrarebirds,animals,treesorflowers.Underamagnifyingglasstheylookverybeautiful,andtheyhelptoincreasemyknowledgeofnature.Onotherstampsthereareportraitsofhistoricalfigures,suchasQuYuanandDr.SunYatsen,GeorgeWashingtonandChesterW.Nimits.WheneverIseeanunfamiliarname,Iwilltrytofindsomeinformationaboutthepersonbyconsultinganencyclopedia.InthiswayIhavecometoknowsomethingaboutquiteafewpeoplewhoarefamousforonereasonoranother.SomeofmyfriendsandrelativeswhoknowIaminterestedinstampsoftenshowmeusedenvelopes.IfIseeastampwhichIhaveneverseenbeforeorIhaven’tgotyet,Iwillaskthemtogiveittome,anditseemsthattheyarealwayskindenoughtoobligeme.Itisalwaysadelighttoaddanewstamptomycollection,andthemorestampsIhave,themoreinterestedIaminphilately.——StudentWhyistravelbecomingmoreandmorepopular?Whataretheadvantagesoftravel?Travelisbeneficialtousinatleastthreeways.(topicsentence)First,bytravellingwecanenjoy…Second,wewillmeet…andsee…whenwetravel.Third,travelwillnotonlyhelpus…,butalsowillhelpus….Withalltheseadvantages,….AdvantagesofTravelTravelisbeneficialtousinatleastthreeways.First,bytravellingwecanenjoythebeautifulsceneryindifferentplaces.Wewillseewithourowneyesmanyplacesreadofinbooks,andvisitsomefamouscitiesandscenicspots.Second,wewillmeetpeoplewithdifferentinterestsandseestrangeanddifferentthingswhenwetravel.Wecangetideasoftheconditionsandcustomsofotherpeople,tastedifferentfoodsandlocalflavorsifwelike.Inthisway,wecanunderstandhowdifferentlyotherpeoplelive.Third,travelwillnotonlyhelpusgainknowledgeofgeographyandhistoryandotherknowledge,butalsowillhelpuskeephealthyandmakeuslessnarrow-minded.Traveldoesbenefitusbothmentallyandphysically.Withalltheseadvantages,it’snowonderthattravelisbecomingmoreandmorepopular.ExerciseDevelopthefollowingintoaparagraph.Thepolicedepartmentcanhelppeopletodealwithmanykindsofproblems.Thepolicecanalsohelpinmedicalemergencies.Everycityhasaspecialtelephonenumberforpolicedepartment.WaysofDevelopingParagraphsDevelopmentbyTimeDevelopmentbyProcessDevelopmentbySpaceDevelopmentbyExampleorGeneralizationDevelopmentbyComparisonandContrastDevelopmentbyCauseandEffectDevelopmentbyClassificationDevelopmentbyDefinitionDevelopmentbyaCombinationofMethodsDevelopmentbyTimeTodescribethingsinorderoftime:earlierthingsarementionedbeforelaterthings,thefirstthingfirstandthelastthinglast.Itisalsocalledchronologicalsequencing.Words&Phrases(P73)HomeworkWriteaparagraphaboutyourgrowth----developedbytime,trytocombineyoursentenceswithwhen,before,after,later,then,during,since,now,…(nolessthan150words)DevelopmentbyProcess程序法Thestepswhichyouusedtoexplainhowsomethingisdonemustoccuroneafteranother,theexactorderinwhichtheyarecarriedoutismostimportant.程序法是按事情发生的步骤的先后顺序进行叙述的，目的是使读者清楚地了解整个事情发生的全过程。Words&Phrases(P76)Sample9First,….Then…..Next,…Then….Then….Yesterday,WereallyhadahardtimegettingPeteroutofthewellhehadfalleninto.Firstwefashionedaropebylinkingourbeltstogether.ThenweloweredittoPeter,tellinghimtograsptheend.Afterhehadholdofthebelt-rope,webegantopullhimslowly,inchbyinch,outofthewell.Duringhisascent,noonedaredspeakaword.Finallywecouldgrasphisarms,andwithashoutofrelief,wepulledhimoutontothegrassybank.DevelopmentbySpaceTodecideontheorderinwhichtonamethedifferentpartsordetails.Tofindoutthespacerelationshipsbetweenthethingswearegoingtodescribeandarrangeourdescriptionaccordingly.Words&Phrases(P78)Sample12Inthemiddleoftherectangular-shapedcourtyardstoodthreemagnoliatrees,…Alittlegirl…amongthem,…Underoneofthetrees….Infrontofanothertree….Atoneendofthecourtyard….Attheoppositeend…rectangularmagnoliatreehopbudpetalflourishinglimbsniff木兰树花蕾，蓓蕾花瓣闻、嗅、吸繁茂的树枝矩形，矩形的跳跃TheworstaccidentIevensawinvolvedaschoolbusandseveralothervehicles.Asmallpickuptruck（敞篷小货车）hadbeentravellingononeofthebusierstreetsinthecity,andaschoolbuswasrightbehindthetruck.Suddenly,ataxiinfrontofthetruckcametoacompletestop.Withbrakessquealing,thetruckcrashedintothebackofthetaxi.Thedriverofthebuscouldn’tavoidthetruck,sothebusendedupontopofit.Asaresultoftheimpact,thepassengerinthetruckwasthrownfromthevehicleintothemiddleoftheroad.Thedriverofthetruckwastrappedinsidethecab（驾驶室）,whichwaswedgedunderthefrontofthebus.Thescenewassohorriblethatitgavemenightmaresforweeks.DevelopmentbyExampleorGeneralization举例归纳Examplesorillustrationsmakeageneralstatementspecificandeasytounderstand.Vividillustrationslightupabstractideasandmakethemclear,interesting,memorable,orconvincing.Illustrationsmaybeasingleexampleoraseriesofexamples.Words&Phrases(P82)Fromthegeneraltothespecific:byexamplesorillustrations.Sample14FromthespecifictothegeneralSample17DevelopmentbyComparisonandContrast比较和对比/对照Acomparisonpointsoutthesimilaritiesbetweentwoormorepersonsorthingsofthesameclass.Acontrastpointsoutthedifferencesbetweentwoormorepersonsorthingsofthesameclass.Inpractice,comparisonandcontrastoftenappeartogether.Words&Phrases（P88)Comparison比较Anation,likeaperson,hasabody—abodythatmustbefedandclothedandhoused,invigoratedandrested,inamannerthatmeasuresuptotheobjectivesofourtime.Anation,likeaperson,hasamind—amindthatmustbekeptinformedandalert,thatmustknowitself,thatunderstandsthehopesandtheneedsofitsneighbors—alltheothernationsthatlivewithinthenarrowingcirclesoftheworld.Anation,likeaperson,hassomethingdeeper,somethingmorepermanent,somethinglargerthanthesumofallitsparts.Itisthatsomethingwhichmattersmosttoitsfutureandcallsforththemostsacredguardingofitspresent.Contrast对比Peopleathomeandabroadhavevoiceddifferentopinionsaboutbirth.Ontheonehand,mostpeoplesaythatweshouldturntostrictbirthcontrolasweareapproachingthelimitofthenumberofpeoplethenationcansupportadequately.Ontheotherhand,othersarguethat,ifbirthcontrolisimposedonthepopulation,thefutureoftheChinesewouldbeseriouslyendangered.Theythinkthatveryintelligentpeoplewouldbemorelikelytohavefewerchildren,andthiswouldbringaboutaloweringofthegenerallevelofintelligenceinthepopulation.Twowaysoforganizingparagraphsofcomparisonandcontrast.1.blockcomparison/blockcontrast(整体）examineonethingthoroughlyandthenexaminetheother.2.alternatingcomparison/alternatingcontrast（交替)examinetwothingsatthesametime,discussingthempointbypoint.TherearemanydifferencesbetweencollegeandhighschoolinBritain.Inhighschool,youcan…;youcan….;youcan...;youcan…;youcan….;Whileincollege,youcan…;youcan…;youcan…;youcan….(block)TherearemanydifferencesbetweencollegeandhighschoolinBritain.Inhighschool,youcan…Incollege,youcan…Inhighschool,youcan…Whileincollege,you…butinhighschool,…(alternating)DevelopmentbyCauseandEffectSoundreasoningorlogic(理由充分、逻辑性强）isnaturallythemostimportantqualityofanycausalanalysis.Twobasicwaysoforganizingparagraphsdevelopedbycauseandeffect:(1)Tostateaneffectanddevotetherestoftheparagraphtoexaminingthecauses.(果因分析法）(2)Tostateacauseandthenmentionorpredicttheeffects.（因果分析法）WordsandPhrases(P92)Whydopeopleliketoslimnow?(结果）Therearemanyreasonsforthat.（分析原因）Firstly,theyhaverealizedthatfatnessisharmfultohealthbecauseitcancausediseasessuchasheartattackandhighbloodpressureoreventhestroke.Secondly,overweightmayspoiltheirimage,especiallyforsomeyounggirls,whothinktheywillnotbelovedbyhandsomeboys.Thirdly,agood-lookingfigurecannotonlyattractpeoplebutmakeyoufeelmoreself-confidentthaneverbefore.果因分析法因果分析法WhywouldIliketolearnEnglish?ThefirstreasonforthatislearningEnglishwillhelpmetoknowmoreaboutdifferentcultures.Andalso,learningEnglishcangivemechancestomakefriendswithpeoplefromothercountries.ThelastreasonislearningEnglishmightgivemeagoodopportunitytogetabetterjob.Thus,learningEnglishwillbringmemanybenefitsformylife.DevelopmentbyClassification分类法Toclassifyistosortthingsintocategoriesaccordingtotheircharacteristics.Wegroupthingsaccordingtotheirsimilaritiesanddifferences.Essentialtoagoodclassificationisparallelism.根据所要叙述或描述的事物、事件和人物的特点，按照一定的标准进行分类，从中找出共同点和不同点。另外，要注意类别对应，不能把不同类的事物、事件或人物进行归类。WordsandPhrases(P96)Sample27Therearethreekindsofbookowners.Thefirst….Thesecond….Thethird….DevelopmentbyDefinition定义法defineaword,term,orconceptwhichisunfamiliartomostreadersoropentovariousinterpretations.Threebasicwaystodefineawordorterm:(1)giveasynonym,e.g.Tomendmeanstorepair(2)useasentence(oftenwithanattributiveclause)e.g.Inkiscoloredwaterweuseforwriting(3)writeaparagraphorevenanessay.Threeprinciplesweshouldobserve:First,avoidcirculardefinitions.E.g.Democracyisthedemocraticprocess.Second,avoidlonglistsofsynonymsifthetermtobedefinedisanabstractone.Third,avoidloadeddefinitions.WordsandPhrases(P99)Diligenceisthekeytosuccess.Itmeanspersistentworkanddoesnotmeanthatwearetoexertourselvesalldayandnightwithoutrest,withoutfoodandwithoutsleep.Thetruemeaningofdiligenceisthecarefuluseoftimeforthepurposeofimprovement,ortoworkpersistentlywithoutanywasteoftime.DevelopmentbyaCombinationofMethodsItisnecessarytouseacombinationofmethodsinordertopresenttheirideasinanimpressiveandconvincingmanner.Example(P100)Homework5Howto….(describetheprocessofdoingsth.)P77Writeaboutapersonyouadmire.P84