英语写作PPT展示Refutatio

Refutation精选课件WhatHowExample精选课件Refutationisthepartofanargumentwhereinaspeakerorwriteranticipatesandcountersopposingpointsofview.InformallogicAnobjection(alsocalledexpostulationorrefutation),isareasonarguingagainstpremise,lemma,ormaincontention.精选课件Greco-RomansTruth doesnotfear contention.Themorethe truth is debated,thecleareritbecomes.Plato&AristotlePythagoreanschoolStoicismAristotle's school精选课件Convinceyouraudiencethattheothersideiswrong.Convinceyouraudiencethatyoursideisright.精选课件RefutetheclaimRefutetheevidenceRefutethereasoningRelationship精选课件精选课件Comparisonwithothers精选课件Therefutationisasuccessorfailure?精选课件Conversation1.Tom:I’msuregladmynephewgotanewcar.Thatotheronehewasdrivinghadterriblebrakesandnowindshieldwipers.Jerry:Yournephewdidn’tgetanewcar.Thatcaryouseehimdrivingishisroommate’s.(Success)精选课件Conversation2.Susan:Portlandisabout400milesfromChico.　　Bob:No,it’snot.It’s389miles.(Failure)精选课件Conversation3.Fred:Angelsdon’texist.　　Donna:Suretheydo.Lookatallthebookswrittenaboutangelsthatarebestsellers!Lookatthefaiththatsomanypeopleplaceinangels!Lookatallthegreatworksofartthatdealwithangels!Howcanyoupossiblequestionthesincereconvictionsofsomanypeople?(Failure)精选课件Conversation4.Don:ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinWorldWarIIthanatomicweapons.　　Martha:That’simpossible.Everyoneknowsthatatomicbombscausemoredamagethanconversationalbombs.(Failure)http://item.taobao.com/item.htm?spm=a230r.1.14.339.ckmwG7&id=37913027016&qq-pf-to=pcqq.c2c精选课件WhatHowExample精选课件HowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutation精选课件Theintroductionofrefutationessayshouldincludethefollowing:Background;Asummaryoftheargumentyouarerefuting;Anacknowledgeofthestrengthsoftheargument,ifany;Theaspectsoftheargumentthatyoubelieveareflawed;HowtoWriteIntroduction精选课件HowtoWriteIntroduction2.BecharmingYoucanwintheattentionandgoodwillofyourreadersbytellinganinterestingstory,quotingagoodcommentontheissue.Youshouldavoidpomposity,andshowconcernforyourreaders.Youshouldpresentyourselfasfair-mindedandgood-natured.精选课件HowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutation精选课件WhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutationHowtoWritebody精选课件ArgumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidenceAttacksonevidenceAttacksonreasoningAttacksonclaims精选课件Twobroadtestsofevidenceare:Istheevidencecorrect?Istheevidenceadequatetoprovetheargument?AttacksOnevidenceThenext……Moreparticularcriteriafortestingevidence精选课件So-calledAuthorityleansonthepopularityofsomeonewhomayhavelittleknowledgeoftheissueorproduct.Example:CNN'sLouDobbs,regularlyusesafigureof"20million"whendiscussingthenumberofillegalaliensonhisbroadcast"LouDobbsTonight.“However,thePEWCenter,amoreobjectivesourceplacesthenumberat11million.AttacksOnevidence精选课件Flawedstatisticaldatasmallsampleandspecialsample;thetotalnumberofsamplesisunknown;Example:Therewere13gun-relatedfatalitiesamongchildreneveryday,butdidn’ttelltheexactagerange.AttacksOnevidence精选课件Ignorethechangeofconditionswithoutconsideringthechangeoftime,spaceandotherexternalconditionswhichmayleadtothealterationofevidence.Example:ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinworldWarIIthanatomicweapons,soconventionalweaponsaremorelethal.However,it’sundertwodifferentcircumstances.AttacksOnevidence精选课件SuppressedevidencehidesomeaspectswhichisagainsttheclaimExample:Anadvertisementclaimsaparticularcarhasmorehorsepowerand0-60speed,butfailstomentionitalsodoesworseincrashtests,andhasworsereliability.AttacksOnevidence精选课件Self-contradictoryevidenceIfyousayorwritesomethingthatis self-contradictory,youmaketwostatementswhichcannotbothbetrue..Example:BushhasblockedprescriptiondrugimportsfromCanadaoversafetyconcerns,buthealsosaidtheU.S.couldrelyonCanadaformorefluvaccine.AttacksOnevidence精选课件Negativeevidencetheevidenceisnotrightormoralinacivilizedsociety,isevil-minded,immatureviciousorharmful,issexistordiscriminatory,orculturallyunacceptable.Example:It’snotnecessarytoabolishdeathpenaltyinChinabecausethepopulationofChinaissolarge.However,it’sevil!AttacksOnevidence精选课件AtypicalevidencetheevidenceisnottypicaltoprovetheclaimExample:Anadforamiracledietofferstestimonialsasproof,butfailstoprovideacontrolledclinicalstudytoprovethedietreallyworks.AttacksOnevidence精选课件ArgumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidenceAttacksonevidenceAttacksonreasoningAttacksonclaims精选课件HastygeneralizationsArrivingataconclusionwithoutenoughevidence.Example:LiHuaandWangPing,whoaretwoAsian-Americanstudents,dowellinmath,soallAsian-Americanstudentsarebetterinmath.AttacksOnreasoning精选课件BandwagonThinkingClaimingthatmostpeopleagreesoitmustberight.Example:It’swidelyacceptedthatFrenchpeoplearemoreromantic,soFrenchmustberomantic.AttacksOnreasoning精选课件Singlecause-effectClaimingthatonlyoneeventcausedanother.Example:WhenIsatdownatthecomputeritstoppedworking,soImusthavedonesomethingwrong.AttacksOnreasoning精选课件NoconnectionThecausedoesnotrelatetotheeffect.Example:Let’snottakeXiaoJingtengonourpicnic.Everytimewetakehimoutwithus,itrains.AttacksOnreasoning精选课件Either/OrSuggestingonlytwoalternativeswhiletheissuemaybemuchmorecomplex.Example:Bush:“eitheryou’reforAmericaoryou’refortheterrorists”AttacksOnreasoning精选课件CircularReasoningRestatingindifferentwordswhathasalreadybeenstated.Example:Xiaomingisabachelorbecausehehasn’tgotmarried.AttacksOnreasoning精选课件FalseAnalogyTheargumentassertsthatiffactsrelatingtoAandfactsrelatingtoBarealikeinsomeessentialrespects,theywillbealikeinanother,orother,essentialrespects.Example:Studentsshouldbeallowedtolookattheirtextbooksduringexaminations.Afterall,surgeonshaveX-raystoguidethemduringanoperation,lawyershavebriefstoguidethemduringatrial,carpentershaveblueprintstoguidethemwhentheyarebuildingahouse.AttacksOnreasoning精选课件1.Sequentialattack（argument1-argument2-argument3）WhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody精选课件2.PrimaryandsecondaryattacksThreetypesoforganizationHowweWritebodyrefutationofprimaryargumentrefutationofsecondaryargument精选课件3.ConcessiontypeattackTomakethebodypartcoherentandconsistentRebuttalofAisnotnecessarilytobethefirst,butit’scriticaltofindoutthelogicalconnectioninthewholeoriginalarticletoberefuted精选课件VideoExamplesVideo1Video2Threetypesoforganization精选课件1.Theargumenttoberefutedanditsrelationshiptothecaseasawhole.HowweWritebodyExample:Indevelopinganeedforpricecontrols,theeffectofinflationhasbeeninjurioustothewelfareoftheAmericanlaborer.Now,ifthisweretrue,theaffirmativewouldindeedhaveastrongargument.WhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutation精选课件2.Statehowyouwillrefutetheargument.Example:However,itcanbedemonstratedthattheaffirmativehasreachedanerroneousconclusionbyneglectingthemostrelevantaspectsoftheUnitedStateseconomicpicture.精选课件3.Refutationwithsupportingevidence..Example:HastheUnitedStateslaborerbeenhurtbyinflation?Onthecontrary,accordingtotheSecretaryoftheTreasury,hisbuyingpowerhasgoneupfortypercentinthepasttwentyyears,andaccordingtoastudyconductedbythelabororganizationsthemselves(AFL-CIOreport),“Thelaborer,eventhoughpriceshavegoneup,stillisinapositiontobuymoreofthedesiredgoodsonthemarketthaneverbefore.”精选课件4.Theeffectoftherefutationandtransitiontocontinuedrefutation.Example:Thusweseethattheaffirmativeneedargument,anappealtothewelfareoflabor,isrefutedbythelaborleadersthemselves.Now,letusproceedtotheirotherneedargumentstoseeiftheyarerealorlargelyimaginary.精选课件Makethemeansofcommunication-language-asclearaspossible. AvoidvaguetermsUsethevocabularyofdebatebyreferringtoissues,arguments,andevidence.HowweWritebodyWhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutation精选课件【Avoid】Thepointhasbeenbroughtup.【Because】Vague.Callingeverythingapoint,whetheritisanissue,andargument,orevidence,isprobablythemostcommonlanguageerrorindebate.Byitselfitisvague;whenitisoveruseditleadstototalconfusion.【Useinstead】“Thecontentionofworkabilityhasbeenattackedwiththeargumentthat”精选课件【Avoid】“Asourquoteshaveproved”【Because】Vague.Beconcretebymakingspecificreferences.【Useinstead】“Ontheotherhand,bothProfessorX,ofWhiteUniversity,andtheDirectoroftheNationalScienceFoundationhaveproved”精选课件【Avoid】“Theysaid”or“Wesaid”【Because】Vagueandclumsy.【Useinstead】“Thefirstaffirmativespeakerasserted”or“MissSmith,inherfirstconstructivespeech”精选课件【Avoid】“Westandon”【Because】Clumsy.【Useinstead】“Oursupportofthiscontentionhasbeen”精选课件【Avoid】“Whereistheirproof?”and“Wehaveofferedproof.”【Because】Clumsyanderroneous.Proofisoftenconfusedwithevidence.【Useinstead】“Whereisthesupportingevidencetoprove”and“Wehaveofferedevidencetosupport”精选课件Bonus!!!精选课件TypicallanguageusedinrefutationAlthoughitiscommonlyheldthatsuccesswillbringpeoplemoneyandstatus,itisunlikelytobetruethatitwillbeadesirablegoalforanyone.Consideringthegreatstresstheyhavetolivewith,andtheirshorterlifespans,greaterloneliness,andrelativeincapacityforcommunityorloveitentails,itisconceivablethatnoteveryonefindsanenterpriserequiringsuchsacrificeisworthwhatitcosts.虽然大多数人认为成功能给人带来金钱和地位，但是每个人都渴望成功却不一定是事实。想一想为了成功所要承受的紧张压力，寿命的可能缩短，巨大的孤独，不能有常人的感情交流和爱情。可以想象，不是所有的人都认为为追求一个目标付出这么多的牺牲是值得的精选课件Itisprobablytruethatinstitutingsanctionsmaysignificantlyreducethefrequencyof"wrong"speechesoncampus,butonevitalpointisbeingleftoutofourthinking:thesemeasuresposeaseriousthreattotheveryideaoftheuniversityandthespiritofacademicfreedom.采取制裁措施可能会显著地减少校园的“错误”言论，但是有一点我们没有考虑进去：这些措施对大学的本身宗旨以及学术自由精神构成了威胁。Typicallanguageusedinrefutation精选课件Onthesurface,thecommentsmadebymenaboutwomen'sabilitiesseemreasonable.Butoncloseexamination,thecommentsrevealtherealcontemptthatmenfeelforwomenandthebasichostilitythatmenhavetowardwomen.    表面上，男人对妇女的能力所作的评论似乎有点道理，但仔细检查一下，这个评论反映了男人对妇女的真正蔑视和对妇女的态度基本上是对立的。Typicallanguageusedinrefutation精选课件Somepeoplesuggestthatamanagerorahighexecutivecanspeakwellandlogicallybecauseoftheopportunitiesofhisposition.Thatisputtingthecartbeforethehorse.Moreoftenthannot,quitethereverseistrue.Itishisskillinwordsthathelpshimtogethisjob.Thatis,ifyouconsciouslyincreaseyourvocabularyyouwillunconsciouslyraiseyourselftoamoreimportantstationinlife.Ofcourse,thenewandhigherpositionyouhavewonwill,inturn,giveyouabetteropportunityforfurtherenrichingyourlanguage.Itisabeautifulandsuccessfulcycle. 有的人说一个经理或一个高级管理人员之所以口才好，讲话有逻辑是因为他的职位给他创造了这样的条件。这就有点本末倒置了。许多情况下，事实正好相反。他的词语能力正好帮助他获得了他的这个职位。也就是说如果你注意扩大你的词汇，你就会在无意中提高生活中的地位。当然你得到的一个新的更重要的职位会反过来为你进一步丰富你的语言创造好的条件。这是一个良性的成功的循环。Typicallanguageusedinrefutation精选课件HowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutation精选课件Howtowriteconclusion4.Statisticalfindings:datashowinghowmuch,howmany,orhowoften—canbeconvincing.5.Personalexperiencesorobservations:Sometimestheycandeliveranargumentativemessagemoreforcefullythananyotherkindofevidence.Personalexperienceusuallyreinforcesbutdoesnotreplaceotherkindsofevidences.HowtoendRestartyourthesisindifferentwaysLookintothefutureMakefunofyouropponentsSummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislongHowtowriteconclusionRestateyourthesisindifferentwaysLookintothefutureMakefunofyouropponentsSummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislong精选课件TipsforYourEssayDon'tmakeupevidenceCiteyoursourcesMakeanoutlineAvoidemotionallanguageKnowthedifferencebetweenalogicalconclusionandanemotionalpointofview精选课件WhatHowExample精选课件ToomuchConcepts!!!Istrike!PPT精选课件Asampleessay…soThenextoneis精选课件精选课件sampleessayYe’sperformancewasanomalous(异常)withanimprovementabout7seconds(6.72s).Acleandrugtestduringcompetitioncouldnotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping(兴奋剂).Performancecouldbeusedtonabdopers.Anathletewillbedisciplinedsimplyforperformingtoowell.精选课件OUTLINEOFREFUTATIONIntroductionBody1.Refute:thedataof“7seconds”2.Refute:“anomalous”improvement3.Refute:compareRyanLochte’slast50metrestoYe’s4.Refute:anotherexampleofcherry-picking5.Refute:adrugtestcannotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping6.Refute:Callawayfailedtomentionout-of-competitiondrugtestConclusion精选课件IntroductionpartFROMLAIJIANG,DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofPennsylvaniaItisashametosee Nature —whichnearlyallscientists,includingmyself,regardasoneofthemostprestigiousandinfluentialphysical-sciencemagazines—publishathinlyveiledbiasedarticlelikethis.Granted,thisisnotapeer-reviewedscientificarticleanddidnotgothroughthescrutinyofpickingreferees.Buttoserveasachannelforthegeneralpopulacetobeintouchwithandappreciatescience,theauthorsandeditorsshouldatleastpresentthereaderswithfactswithinthepropercontext,whichtheyblatantlyfailedtodo.Background/Hook精选课件BodypartFirst,toidentifyYe’sperformanceincrease,EwenCallawaycomparedherOlympic400-metreIMtimewithherperformanceattheWorldChampionshipsin2011(4:28.43and4:35.15,respectively)andconcludedthatshehadan“anomalous”improvementofaround7seconds(6.72s).Infact,herpreviouspersonalbestwas4:33.79atthe AsianGamesin2010.Thisleadstoanimprovementof5.38seconds.Inasportingeventinwhich0.1scanbethedifferencebetweenthegoldandsilvermedal,Iseenoreasonfor5.38stobetreatedas7s.ReviewthewrongfactsListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep1精选课件BodypartSecond,aspreviouslypointedout,Yeisonly16yearsoldandherbodyisstilldeveloping.Betteringoneselfby5secondsovertwoyearsmayseemimpossibleforanadultswimmer,butitcertainlyhappensamongyoungsters.AninterviewwithAustraliangoldmedallistIanThorperevealedthathis400-metrefreestyletimeimprovedby5secondsbetweentheagesof15and16.Forregularpeople,includingCallaway,itmaybehardtoimaginewhataneliteswimmercanachieveasheorshematuresandundergoesscientificandpersistenttraining.Butjumpingtotheconclusionthatitis“anomalous”basedon‘Ohthat’ssotoughIcannotimagineitisreal’ishardlysound.ListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep2精选课件BodypartThird,tocompareRyanLochte’slast50metrestoYe’sisatextbookexampleof‘cherry-picking’yourdata.Yes,LochtewasslowerthanYeinthelast50metres,butLochtehadahugeleadinthefirst300metres,sohechosenottopushhimselftoohardandtoconservehisenergyforlater.Ye,ontheotherhand,wastrailingbehindafterthefirst300metresandreliedonfreestyle,inwhichshehasanedge,towintherace.Failingtomentionthisstrategicdifference,aswellasthefactthatLochteis23.25secondsfaster(4:05.18)thanYeoverall,createstheillusionthatawomanswamfasterthanthebestmaninthesamesport,whichsoundsimpossible.Puttingasidethegenderargument,Ibelievethisisstillaleadingquestionthatimpliestothereaderthatthereissomethingfishygoingon.cherry-pickingListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep3精选课件BodypartFourthisanotherexampleofcherry-picking.Inthesameevent,therearefourmaleswimmerswhoswamfasterthanbothLochter(29.10s)andYe(28.93s)inthefinal50metres:KosukeHagino(28.52s),MichaelPhelps(28.44s),YuyaHorihata(27.87s)andThomasFraser-Holmes(28.35s).Asitturnsout,ifwearejusttalkingaboutthelast50metresina400-metreIM,LochterisnottheexampleIwouldhaveusedifIweretheauthor.WhatkindofscientificrigorousnessisCallawaytryingtodemonstratehere?IsitlogicalthatifLochteristhechampion,weshouldassumethatheleadsineverysplit?Thatwouldbeaterriblewaytoteachthepublichowscienceworks.cherry-pickingListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep4精选课件BodypartFifthistheissueIopposethemost.CallawayquotesRossTuckerandimpliesthatadrugtestcannotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping.Anyonewhohastakenquantum101willtellyouthateverythingisprobabilisticinnature,andsothereisaprobabilitythatthedruginanathlete’ssystemcouldtunneloutrightatthemomentofthetest.Aslightchanceitmaybe,butshouldwedisregardalltestresultsbecauseofit?Let’sbepracticalandreasonable,andacceptthattheWorldAnti-Dopingagency(WADA)iscompetentatitsjob.Ye’surinesamplewillbestoredforeightyearsafterthecontestforfuturetestingastechnologyadvances.Innocentuntilprovenguilty,shouldn’titbe?FalseauthorityYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep5精选课件BodypartSixth,andthelastpointIwouldliketomake,isthattheout-of-competitiondrugtestisalreadyineffect,whichCallawayfailedtomention.AsnotedinthepresidentofWADA’spressrelease,drugtestingforOlympiansbeganatleastsixmonthsbeforetheopeningoftheLondonOlympics.Furthermore,107athleteshavebeenbannedfromthisOlympicsfordoping.Thatmaybethereasonthat“everyonewillpassattheOlympicgames.Hardlyanyonefailsincompetitiontesting”—thosewhodiddopehavealreadybeencaughtandsanctioned.Callawayisfreetosuggestthataplayercouldhavedopedbeforehandandfooledthetestatthegame,butthispossibilityiscertainlyruledoutforYe.IgnorethequestionListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep6精选课件ConclusionpartOverall,eventhoughCallawaydidnotfalsifyanydata,hedid(intentionallyornot)cherry-pickdatathat,inmyview,arefartoosuggestivetobefairandunbiased.Ifyouwanttocoverastoryofasuspecteddopingfromascientificpointofview,beimpartialandprovideallthefactsforthereadertojudge.Youareentitledtoyourinterpretationofthefacts,andtheexpressionthereofinyourpiece,explicitlyorotherwise,butshowingonlyevidencethatfavoursyourargumentishardlygoodscienceorjournalism.Suchanarticleinajournalsuchas Nature isnotanappropriateexampleofhowscientificresearchorreportingshouldbedone.Restartyourthesisindifferentways精选课件Tired?精选课件Thankyou!That’sall精选课件感谢亲观看此幻灯片，此课件部分内容来源于网络，如有侵权请及时联系我们删除，谢谢配合！