语言学大题

PAGEPAGE832.  Whatisthefunctionofcontextincommunication?Trytoexplainthefollowingutterancesratherthanjuststatefacts. (1)  Theroomismessy.    (2)  Itwouldbegoodifshehadagreenskirton.Contextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbyboththespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsohearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Thecontextoftenhelpsinunderstandingtheparticularmeaningoftheword,phrase,etc.Itmayalsobethebroadersocialsituationinwhichalinguisticitemisused. (1)  a. Amildcriticismofsomeonewhoshouldhavecleanedtheroom.b. Inalanguageclasswhereastudentmadeamistake,forheintendedtosay“tidy.”c. Theroomwaswantedforameeting.(2)a.Amildwaytoexpressdisagreementwithsomeonewhohascomplimentedonalady’sappearance.b.Aregretthatthecustomerhadnottakenthedress.c.Thatsheworearedshirtwasnotinagreementwiththecustomontheoccasion.Suprasegamentalfeature(definition,category)Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theyincludestress,tone,intonation,pitchetc.Stress:definitionistheintensityorprominencegiventoasyllableatthewordlevelright(argument;Example;explainhow)atthesentencelevelpeterleftdirectionformarytofollowpeterleftdirectionformarytofollow(argument;Example;explainhow)(Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,verbsadjectives,adverbs,etc.arepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent.Buttogivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect.(argument)Takethesentence“HeisdrivingMYcar.”forexample.Toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnothis,oryours,butmine,thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronoun“my”,whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed.(explainhow)Pitch:(definition;argument;Example;explainhow)Tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.(definition;argument;Example;explainhow)(definition;argument;Example;explainhow)Intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonationThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,suchas`importandim`port.Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompounds,isthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress,forexample:`blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack,butablack`birdisabirdthatisblack.2)      Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,verbsadjectives,adverbs,etcarepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent.Buttogivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect.Takethesentence“Heisdrivingmycar.”  forexample.Toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnothis,oryours,butmine,thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronoun my,whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed.3)      Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid..WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds?Compound定义Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword，twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic，notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponents.Frenchleave不辞而别spanishathlete吹牛者chinesecopy中国的复制品(example)Phonetically,thewordstressofacompoundusuallyfallsonthefirstelement.(example)blackhorseblackhorseDiscussthetypesofmorphemeswithexamples.Morpheme定义ItisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageFreemorphemes：Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves，forexample，“book-”intheword“bookish”.Lexicalmorphemes…thefreemorphemeswhichcarrythecontentofmessagesweconveyegModernizeFunctionalmorphemes…consistofthefunctionalwordsinthelanguage.e.g.Conj.(and,but)Article(the)Prep.(in,on,above)Boundmorphemes：Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes，eitherfreeorbound，toformawordsuchas“-ish”in“bookish”.Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintoboundrootsandaffixes.Aboundrootisseenaspartofaword；itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughithasaclearanddefinitemeaning，suchas“gene-”intheword“generate”.Affixesareoftwotypes：inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityofnouns.Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateawordsuchas“mis-”intheword“misinform”.Derivationalaffixescanalsobedividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordsuchas“dis-”intheword“dislike”，whilesuffixesoccurattheendofawordsuchas“-less”intheword“friendless”.Explainfunctionsoflanguage,usingexamples.(30’)HeresomemajorcategoriesPhatic:toestablishanatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.eghelloDirective:togetthehearertodosth.outInformative:totellsth.,togiveinformationortoreasonthingsout.egroadclosedInterrogative:toaskforinformationfromothers.HowoldareyouExpressive:torevealthespeaker’sattitudesandfeelings.MygodEvocative:tocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearers.goodtothelastdropPerformative:todothings,toperformactions.IdeclarethemeetingopenRecreational:toentertaintheuser.Metalingual:certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisanddescriptionofparticularstudiesSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?(20’)Saussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?   AlthoughSaussure’sdistinctionandChomsky’sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamaterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviesandtohim,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics?(20’)Definitionsofphonologyandphoneticsrespectively;Thestudyofthespeechsoundsthatoccurinhumanlanguagesiscalledphonetics.Phonologyisthedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.Theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified...Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication…Example.leappeelE.g.Phonetic&phonologicalperspectivesofthe[l]sound?Phonetically,aclear[l]inleapandadark[ł]inpeel.Phonologically,whyaclear[l]anddark[ł]?Anyrules?clear[l]&dark[ł]=/l/