[理学]化学专业英语电子版2

[理学]化学专业英语电子版2 Chapter 2 Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry 2.1 Chemical Language The subjects of naming chemical substances, or chemical nomenclature, and writing chemical “equations” are basic to communication in the society of chemists. The language of chemistry has evolved and improved with the understanding of chemical principles. For this reason, an understanding of chemical language in not only useful for communicating, but reflects an underlying understanding of the concepts of chemistry. The ability to name common chemical compounds is absolutely essential for success in a general chemistry course. Chemical language is similar to other human languages, with element symbols forming the alphabet, chemical formulas the words, chemical equations the sentences and multistep chemical processes the paragraphs. Commercial production processes are chapters in the story of chemistry. Genetics, pollution and disease comprise entire volumes. Abbreviations and phonemes are (unfortunately) extensively used also, particularly in areas where long, complicated names are found, such as organic chemistry and biochemistry. Story setting corresponds to the reaction conditions, and plot development to reaction yields and pathways. We shall explore a number of chemical grammars and show how to solve simple problems related to structure and nomenclature. Unfortunately, partly due to historical precedent and partly due to conceptual limitations, there is no ultimate chemical language which describes uniquely everything known about a material, including molecular structure and chemical properties, and it may be assumed that chemical concepts yet to be discovered will lead to new ways of describing that knowledge. For this reason, several different systems of terminology are in use today, each with advantages and disadvantages. The best we can do here is to introduce a few communication methods students are likely to encounter in introductory courses. 2.2 Nomenclature of Elements 2.2.1 Chemical Symbols A chemical symbol is an abbreviation or shortened version of the name of a chemical element. Each element has its own unique symbol. A symbol both identifies a specific element and represents an atom of that element. The use of a chemical symbol to represent a chemical substance goes back to ancient times. Alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. The present symbols express the system set out by the atomic theory of matter. John Dalton first used symbols to designate single atoms of elements. He probably used a circle for each because, like the ancient Greeks, he thought of atoms as tiny, round hard indivisible spheres. During the first half of the nineteenth century, an outstanding Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, systematically assigned letters as symbols for the elements. This method soon became accepted by chemists everywhere. In 1921 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists (IUPAC) established the Commission on the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (CNIC). Rules for accepting element names were established in 1938 with revisions in 1957 and 1970. Today, the IUPAC is the organization that makes the final decision on the names and symbols of the element. Chemical symbols are composed of one or two letters. There are about a dozen common elements that have a single capitalized letter for their symbol. The rest, that have permanent names have two letters. The first is capitalized and the second is lower case. The lower case letter is either the second letter in the name, or the letter of a strong consonant heard when the name of the element is spoken. Most of the elements have symbols derived from their English name, but a few symbols stem from other languages. Ten of the elements have symbols from their Latin names and one element with a symbol from a German name. IUPAC has recently prescribed that "aluminium" and "caesium" take the place of the US spellings "aluminum" and "cesium", while the US "sulfur" takes the place of the British "sulphur". 2.2.2 Names and Origins of Elements The first 112 elements have internationally accepted names, which are derived from the compound or substance in which the element was discovered; an unusual or identifying property of the element; places, cities, and countries; famous scientists; Greek mythology and astronomical objects. 1. Substances Known by Alchemists Carbon (C = #6): The name derives from the Latin 'carbo' for "charcoal". Sulfur (S = #16): The origin of the English word is the Latin word 'sulphurium' which comes from Sanskrit 'sulveri' meaning to burn slowly. Iron (Fe = #26): Iron was known of from ancient times and its name is of Anglo-Saxon origin. The symbol 'Fe' is derived from the Latin word 'ferrum' for 'iron'. Copper (Cu = #29): Copper was known in ancient Rome as aes cyprium meaning 'ore from Cyprus'. The name later mutated to 'cuprum' from which its symbol is derived. Silver (Ag = #47): The word 'silver' is of obscure Anglo-Saxon origin. The old Sanskrit word 'argunas', meaning 'shining brightly', mutated into the Latin word 'Argentum' from which the symbol “Ag” is derived. Tin (Sn = #50): The English name Tin is of unknown origin, perhaps tina (Germanic) for shiny little stick. The Latin name Stannum is connected to stagnum and stag (Indo-European) for dripping because Tin melts easily. Platinum (Pt = #78): Platinum was known of and used by pre-Columbian Indians. Spanish mathematician Don Antonio de Ulloa named the metal 'platina' meaning 'silver-like' or 'little silver' in 1748. Platinum looks like silver. Gold (Au = #79) is the old Anglo-Saxon designation for this precious metal and has roots in Sanskrit ('Jval' which means 'shining'). The chemical symbol Au derives from the Latin Aurum, for Aurora the Goddess of dawn. Mercury (Hg = #80):The name for the liquid metal, Mercury, is from the easily flowing Roman god of messengers and the fast moving planet, both of the same name. Hydrargyrum from hydro-argyros (Greek) for water-silver since mercury is a shiny liquid. Lead (Pb = #82): The English name Lead is of unknown origin, but perhaps related to lodd (Norse) and Lot (Germanic). Plumbum: Lead was called plumbum nigrum (black lead) by the Romans to distinguish it from plumbum candidum (light lead, now called Tin). Plumbum (Latin) is possibly related to Molybdos (Greek) also meaning lead. 2. Elements Named for Color Chlorine (Cl = #17): Chlorine is a greenish-yellow (also toxic and aggressive) gas. Chloros is Greek for 'greenish yellow'. Chromium(Cr = #24): Chromium is responsible for the many different colors of its compounds - its name is derived from the Greek word “chroma” for 'color.' Rubidium (Ru = #44): Rubidium has deep-red emission lines in its spectrum. For that reason it was named after the Latin word 'rubidis' for 'deep-red'. Rhodium (Rh = #45): Rhodium forms rose-coloured compounds. It is named after the Greek word 'rhodon' for 'rose'. Indium (In = #49): Indium was identified spectroscopically due to its deep blue, or indigo-coloured emission line ('indigo' in its turn is named after the blue dye indigo, which was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans who named it 'indikon' or 'indicum' as the dye was imported from India). Iodine (I = #53): Iodine is named after the Greek word 'iodes' meaning 'violet' because of the color of gaseous iodine. Caesium (Cs = #55 ): Caesium was identified using spectroscopic methods in 1860. Caesius is Latin for 'sky blue', the color of the element's emission spectrum. Iridium (Ir = #77): Iridium derives from the Latin word 'iris' meaning 'rainbow' because its salts show a variety of colors. Thallium (Tl = #81): Thallium emits a sharp green line in its emission spectrum, and was named after the Greek word 'thallus' meaning 'sprouting green twig'. 3. Elements Named for Properties other than Color Hydrogen (H = #1): Hydros (Greek) for water and -gen (Greek) meaning producing, was suggested by Lavoisier because when hydrogen burns, water is produced. Nitrogen (N = #7) was derived from Niter (Greek) for saltpeter, combined with -gen (Greek), meaning producing. Oxygen (O = #8): Oksys (Greek) for acid, & -gen (Greek) for producing. Phosphorus (P = #15): Its name derived from the Greek words 'Phos' meaning light and '-phere' for bearing, since white phosphorus emits light in the dark. Zinc (Zn = #30) may be derived from the German word Zink or Zinke which translates to 'tine or sharp edge'. The mineral calamine (zinc carbonate) from which the metal can be obtained has many sharp edges. Fluorine (F = #9): Fluere (Latin) means to flow. Bromine (Br = #35): Bromos (Greek) meaning stink, or bad odor, describes the smell of the element Bromine. -ine is a suffix previously used for other halogens. Antimony (Sb = #51): Antimony was thought not to be found alone in nature. Its name is derived from this assumption: anti and monos are Greek for 'not' and (in this context) 'alone'. While it is true that the element is predominantly found as a component in many minerals, it is also found in its elementary form. The Latin name Stibium from which the symbol “Sb” is comes from the mineral stibnite (antimony sulfide) in which it occurs. Stibni is Greek for 'mark' because this mineral was used as a black pigment. Osmium (Os = #76): Its oxide is volatile and has a sharp smell. For this reason the element was named after the Greek word 'osme' meaning 'smell'. 4. Elements Named after "Modern" Celestial Objects Helium (He = #2) for Helios, the (Greek) name for the sun. Selenium (Se = #34): Selene is the (Greek) name for the moon. Palladium (Pd = #46): Pallas (Athene), the second asteroid. Pallas was the Greek goddess of wisdom. Tellurium (Te = #52): Tellurium was named after the Roman goddess of the earth, Telles. Cerium (Ce = #58) was derived from that of Ceres, the first asteroid. Ceres was the Roman Goddess of corn and harvest. Uranium (U = #92) was named after the planet Uranus. Uranos was the Greek god of the Heavens. Neptunium (Np = #93), it was the next element after Uranium on the periodic chart and the next planet after Uranus was Neptune. Neptune was the god of the seas. Plutonium (Pu = #94): The second element after Uranium on the periodic chart should be named for the second planet after Uranus, Pluto. Pluto was the god of the underworld. 5. Names Derived from Mythology or Superstition Titanium (Ti = #22): Titanium has its obvious origin in the Titans who were, according to Greek mythology, the first sons of the earth. Vanadium (V = #23): It was named after the Nordic goddess of love and beauty, Freya Vanadis. Cobalt (Co = #27): Kobold (German) meant evil sprite. Nickel (Ni = #28): Nickel (German) means devil or deceptive little spirits. Arsenic (As = #33): Arsenikos (Greek) means brave, male. Niobium (Nb = #41): Niobium is named after 'Niobe' the daughter of 'Tantalus' in Greek mythology, because niobium is the lighter homologue of tantalum in the periodic table. Promethium (Pm = #61): Prometheus was the god who stole fire from heaven. Tantalum (Ta = #73): Tantalum is named after Tantalus, the father of Niobe, was condemned to hell, standing to his neck in water. Wolfram (W = #74): The element occurs in a mineral called wolframite (iron and manganese wolframate), from which it takes its official symbol and worldwide most common name, wolfram. The name 'wolframite' comes from the German translation of lupi spuma ('Wolf Rahm') which means 'wolf's foam'. This name was given as during the extraction process it 'eats' tin like a wolf eats sheep. Tungsten derives from the Swedish tung sten which means 'heavy stone.' Tungsten also used to be the name of the mineral in which the element occurs (calcium wolframate), which forms very heavy stones, Thorium (Th = #90): Thor, the Norse god of war. 6. Elements Named for People Curium (Cm = #96): It was named after Pierre and Marie Curie, who discovered Radium and researched radioactivity. Einsteinium (Es = #99): It was named after Albert Einstein (1879-1955), for his work on theoretical physics including the photoelectric effect. Fermium (Fm = #100): It was named in honor of Enrico Fermi (1901-1954), who developed the first nuclear reactor, quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Mendelevium (Md = #101): Named in honor of Dmitri Mendeleev, who invented periodic table. Nobelium (No = #102): Named in honor of Alfred Nobel, who invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes foundation. Lawrencium (Lr = #103): Named in honor of Ernest O. Lawrence, who was involved in the development of the cyclotron. Rutherfordium (Rf = #104): Element #104 was made independently by an American group at Berkeley and a Russian group at Dubna. The Americans proposed the name after Ernest Rutherford. The Russians proposed the name Kurtchatovium (Ku) after Igor Kurtchatov (1903-1960), a Russian atomic physicist. Seaborgium (Sg = #106): Named in honor of Glenn T. Seaborg, who discovered the chemistry of the transuranium elements, shared discovered and isolated 10 elements, developed and proposed the actinide series. Bohrium (Bh = #107): Named in honor of Niels Bohr, who made fundamental understanding of atomic structure and quantum mechanics. Meitnerium (Mt = #109): Named in honor of Lise Meitner, who shared discovery of nuclear fission. Roentgenium (Rg= #111): Named in honor of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who produced and detected X-rays. Copernicium (Cn= #112): Named in honor of Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicium was first created on February 9, 1996, at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany by Sigurd Hofmann, Victor Ninov et al. It was given its new name - copernicium - in February, 2010. 7. Elements Named for Locations of Ores Magnesium (Mg = #12): from magnesia alba, the white magnesia (MgCO) from Magnesia in 3 ancient Greece. Manganese (Mn = #25): From a dark brown half mineral from Germany called braunstein was known to color glass and pottery violet. It was also known as magnesia nigri meaning black magnesia (MnO) from Magnesia in ancient Greece. 2 Strontium (Sr = #38): The element was discovered in the earth strontia. Cadmium (Cd = #48), meaning cadmium fornacum or furnace calamine. Calamine (ZnCO) 3 was an earth found in Kadmeia in Ancient Greece. The following elements were discovered in earths separated from the dense, black mineral gadolinite (earlier called ytterite) found in the mine at Ytterby, a village near Stockholm, Sweden. Yttrium (Y = #39) was named for its earth yttria. Erbium (Er = #68) was named for its earth erbia. Terbium (Tb = #65) was named for its earth terbia. Ytterbium (Yb = #70) was named for its earth ytterbia. Holmium (Ho = #67) and its earth holmia were named for Holmium, the ancient name for Stockholm. It and Thulium (Tm = #69) were isolated from erbia by Cleve. The earth thulia was named after Thule an ancient name for Scandinavia. 8. Elements Named for Geographical Places prior to the 20th Century Scandium (Sc = #21), (Latin) for Scandinavia. Gallium (Ga = #31), (Latin) for France. Germanium (Ge = #32) after Germany Ruthenium (Ru=#44): From Latin Ruthenia, means Russia. Europium (Eu = #63) after the Continent. Lutetium (Lu = #71): Named after the Latin, Lutetia, the city of Paris. Hafnium (Hf = #72), (Latin) for Copenhagen. Rhenium (Re=#75), from Latin Rhenus, the river Rhine. Polonium (Po = #84) for Poland. Francium (Fr = #87) for France Americium (Am = #95) was isolated in 1945 by Seaborg, Ghiorso, Thompson working in Chicago as part of the Manhattan Project. Berkelium (Bk = #97) was made in December 1949 at the University of California-Berkeley by Thompson, Ghiorso, and Seaborg. Californium (Cf = #98) was made in January 1950 at the University of California-Berkeley by Thompson, Street, Ghiorso, and Seaborg. Dubnium (Db = #105) was made in 1967 both at Berkeley and at the Russian Nuclear Institute at Dubna, north of Moscow. Hassium (Hs = #108) was named for the German State of Hesse (Latin for Germany: Hassias) where it was made. Darmstadtium (Ds = #110): On 9 November 1994 at 4:39 PM the first atom of the heaviest chemical element with atomic number 110 was detected at GSI in Darmstadt, Germany. 9. Elements Named for Minerals Beryllium (Be = #4): Beryllos (Greek) is the name of beryl, 3BeO•AlO•6SiO. 232 Boron (B = #5): Bauraq (Arabic) and burah (Persian) are names for borax, NaBO•10HO. 2472 Sodium (Na = #11): Suwwad (Arabic) is a plant with high soda content (NaCO). Sodanum 23 (Medieval Latin) was a headache remedy. Natrium: Neter (Hebrew) and nitrum (Latin) are ancient names for alkalies. Aluminum (Al = #13): Alumen (Latin) means alum. Alum was the name for KAl(OH)(SO), 261244 which is used as an astringent from ancient times. Silicon (Si = #14): Silex (Latin) is flint, a hard stone. Potassium (K = #19): Because the metal was obtained from potash (KCO), Davy named the 23 element Potassium. Potassium is called Kalium in German and Scandinavian languages which derive from al-quali (Arabic) meaning the ash. Calcium (Ca = #20): Kylix (Greek) = calx (Latin) means chalk. Zirconium (Zr = #40): Zerk (Arabic) means precious stone. Zirconium is in zircons, ZrSiO. 4 Zargum (Arabic) means golden yellow colored. Molybdenum (Mo = #42): Before 1600, soft black minerals (graphite, SbS, PbS, MoS) that 232 leave black marks were all called molybdos, molybdän, or molybdenum. Scheele called the metal that formed Molybdenum since Molybdos was Greek for lead Barium (Ba = #56): The mineral (BaSO) 4 became known as baryte and the alkalie baryta after the (Greek) barys meaning heavy. Samarium (Sm = #62): samaria. Gadolinium (Gd = #64), mineral gadolinite. 10. Names Constructed from other Words Li = Lithium (#3): Lithos (Greek) means stone. Technetium (Tc = #43): The element was named after the Greek word techous which means 'artificial'. Technetium was the first element artificially produced. Lanthanum (La = #57): Lanthano (Greek) means to hide or to escape notice. Praseodymium = Pr (#59): Praseios, (Greek) for leek-green since it has greenish salts, and didymos meaning twin and Neodymium = Nd (#60) Neos (Greek) means new. Dysprosium (Dy = #66): Dysprositos (Greek) means difficult to attain. Bi (#83) = Bismuth: Wiese (German) for field and Muten (German) means to apply for mineral rights or perhaps Weisse Masse (German) means white mass. Astatine (At = #85): Astatine is an unstable, synthetic element. A-statos (Greek) means not standing or not lasting. -ine denotes Astatine is a member of the halogen family. Radium (Ra: #88): Radius (Latin) means ray. Actinium (Ac: #89): Aktinos (Greek) means ray. Protactinium (Pa = #91): Protos (Greek) meaning prior was combined with the name of the daughter element, Actinium. The name describes its decay to actinium ('proto' is Greek for 'first'). Neon (Ne: #10): Neos (Greek) means new. Argon (Ar: #18): the lazy one, because Argon is chemically inert. A-ergon (Greek) means no work or no action. Krypton (Kr: #36): Kryptos (Greek) means hidden. Xenon (Xe: #54): Xenos (Greek) means the stranger. Radon (Rn: #86): Radius (Latin) means ray. 11. Systematic Nomenclature and Symbols for New Elements In the past, some elements were given two names because two groups claimed to have discovered them. To avoid such confusion it was decided in 1947 that after the existence of a new element had been proved beyond reasonable doubt, discoverers had the right to suggest a name to IUPAC, but that only the Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (CNIC) could make a recommendation to the IUPAC Council to make the final decision. Names for elements up to and including element 103 do not, therefore, carry any implication regarding priority of discovery. Newly discovered elements may be referred to in the scientific literature but until they have received permanent names and symbols from IUPAC, temporary designators are required. Such elements may be referred to by their atomic numbers, as in 'element 120' for example, but IUPAC has approved a systematic nomenclature and series of three-letter symbols. The name is derived directly from the atomic number of the element using the following numerical roots: 0 = nil 3 = tri 6 = hex 9 = enn 1 = un 4 = quad 7 = sept 2 = bi 5 = pent 8 = oct The roots are put together in the order of the digits which make up the atomic number and terminated by 'ium' to spell out the name. The final 'n' of 'enn' is elided when it occurs before 'nil', and the final 'i' of 'bi' and of 'tri' when it occurs before 'ium'. The symbol for the element is composed of the initial letters of the numerical roots which make up the name. For example, element #104 should be called Unnilquadium: (Latin) un=1, nil=0, quad=4, with the ending -ium denoting a metal. The symbol would be the three letter abbreviation Unq. Unnilquadium (#104 = Unq) is now called Rutherfordium (Rf) Unnilpentium (#105 = Unp) is now called Dubnium (Db). Unnilhexium (#106 = Unh) is now called Seaborgium (Sg). Unnilseptium (#107 = Uns) is now called Bohrium (Bh). Unniloctium (#108 = Uno) is now called Hassium (Hs). Unnilennium (#109 = Une) is now called Meitnerium (Mt). Ununnilium (#110 = Uun) is now called Darmstadtium (Ds). Unununium (#111 = Uuu) is now called Roentgenium (Rg). Ununbium (#112 = Uub) is now called Copernicium (Cn). Ununtrium (#113 = Uut) was formed by the alpha emission from element #115. Ununquadium (#114 = Uuq): Only one atom of element #114 was made through a nuclear reaction involving fusing a Calcium ion with a Plutonium atom. Ununpentium (#115 = Uup): Scientists at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, in collaboration with researchers from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia announced February 2, 2004, the discovery of element #115 and subsequent alpha decay to element #113. Ununhexium (#116 = Uuh): On December 6, 2000, scientists working at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, along with scientists from the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, announced the creation of ununhexium. They produced ununhexium by bombarding atoms of curium-248 with ions of calcium-48. This produced ununhexium-292, an isotope with a half-life of about 0.6 milliseconds (0.0006 seconds), and four free neutrons. Ununseptium (#117 = Uus): A team of Russian and American scientists produced six atoms of the element by smashing together isotopes of calcium and a radioactive element called berkelium in April of 2010. Ununoctium (#118 = Uuo) On October 16, 2006, scientists working at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, along with scientists from the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, announced the creation of ununoctium. They produced ununoctium by bombarding atoms of californium-249 with ions of calcium-48. This produced ununoctium-294, an isotope with a half-life of about 0.89 milliseconds (0.00089 seconds), and three free neutrons. The californium target was 19irradiated with a total of 1.6，10 calcium ions over the course of 1080 hours, resulting in the production of three atoms of ununoctium. 2.2.3 Names for Groups of Elements, and Their Subdivisions Collective names of groups of like elements are used by IUPAC to describe nomenclature for categorization of chemical elements. The following names are approved by IUPAC: Alkali metals - The metals of group 1: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr. Alkaline earth metals - The metals of group 2: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra. Pnicogens - The elements of group 15: N, P, As, Sb, Bi. Chalcogens - The elements of group 16: O, S, Se, Te, Po. Halogens - The elements of group 17: F, Cl, Br, I, At. Noble gases - The elements of group 18: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn. Lanthanoids - Elements 57-71: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu. Actinoids - Elements 89-103: Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr. Rare earth elements - Sc, Y, and the lanthanoids. Transition metals - Elements in groups 3 to 12. The generic terms pnictide, chalcogenide, and halogenide (or halide) are used in naming compounds of the pnictogens, chalcogens, and halogens. 2.2.4 Notes 231. The isotopes H and H are named deuterium and tritium and the symbols D and T respectively may be used. 2. The isotopes of an element except hydrogen should all bear the same name and are designated by mass numbers For example; the atom of atomic number 8 and mass number 18 is named oxygen-18 and has the 18symbol O. 3. For the elements gold, iron and wolfram, the names shall always be used when forming names derived from those of the elements, e.g., aurate, ferrate, tungstate and not goldate, ironate, wolframate. 4. For some compounds of sulfur, nitrogen and antimony, derivatives of the Greek name eiov, the French name azote, and the Latin name stibium respectively, are used. 5. The name mercury should be used as the root name also in language where the element has another name (mercurate, not hydrarygrate). 6. Any new metallic elements should be given names ending in –ium. Molybdenum and a few other elements have long been spelt without an “i” in most languages, and the Commission hesitates to insert it. 2.3 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 2.3.1 Common Names Early chemical characterizations could not be based on chemical composition, which usually wasn’t known, but rather on properties, such as color, taste, therapeutics (real or imagined), or origin. Substances were classified by value such as base (low), noble (high), regalus (kingly), by taste (a dangerous process) as with acids (sour), alkalies (bitter) or salts (salty), by appearance as with metals (lustrous), earths (insoluble) or airs (gaseous) and by preparation as with spirits (distillates), calxes (combustates), flowers (sublimates), coagulates (precipitates) or amalgams (combinates). These nonsystematic naming methods were often confusing, as a given substance might have several names, and the same name could be used for several substances. For example, what is known today as potassium carbonate was named after to a variety of sources as Salt of Wormwood, Salt of Tartar, spodium, fixed alkali salt, potash, etc. The common names and systematic names of some other compounds are listed in Table 1. As the understanding of matter improved, more systematic names began to be developed. Table 2.1 Common and Systematic Names of Some Compounds. FCS ooy rms mmt uoelnma a Nt ai mc e N a m e HWD ai2 O th ey r d r o g e n m o n o x i d e NATHmr mi3 oh ny id a r o g e n n i t r i d e CDSOro yl2 i id c e c a r b o n d i o x i d e NTSaaoCbd1 li eu m s ac lh t l o r i d e NLD ai2 O un gi ht ir no gg e gn a s m o n o x i d e CMCaaaCrlObc li3 eu ,m cc ha ar lb ko ,n a lt ie m e s t o n e CQCauaO il cc ki lu im m e o x i d e CSCala(alOkcHei)du m2 l ih my e d r o x i d e NBSaaoHkdCiiOnu gm3 sh oy dd a r o g e n c a r b o n a t e NWSaao sd2 ChiOiu nm3 g , 1 c0saHor db2 0 a o n a t e d e c a h y d r a t e MEMgpaSsgOon me4 s, 7siHau lm2 0 t s u l f a t e h e p t a h y d r a t e MMMgia(lgOknH e)os fi2 u mm a gh ny ed sr io a x i d e CGCayaSplOsc ui4 m u, 2mH s2 0 u l f a t e d i h y d r a t e HBS au2 StlOtf eu4 rr yi c a ca ic d i d CSS uu1 gc2 Har r o2 s2 Oe 1 1 CAA sc9 Hpe it8 Ory il4 n s a l i c y l i c a c i d 2.3.2 IUPAC Nomenclature The IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry is a systematic method of naming inorganic chemical compounds as recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Ideally, every inorganic compound should have a name from which an unambiguous formula can be determined. 1. Naming Binary Molecular Compounds: Binary molecular compounds are formed between two nonmetals. (1) The first element in the compound is named directly after its element name. If there is more than one atom of the element present in the molecule, then a numerical prefix must be added to the name. Common prefixes are given in Table 2.2. (2) The second element in the compound is named after its element but the ending of the name is removed and an -ide is added (based on how it sounds), a prefix should always be used to show how many atoms of that element are present in the molecule (even if there is only one). Some common roots are listed in Table 2.3. Table 2.2 Number Prefixes for Chemical Names NPNPururmemebfbfeieir x r x 1 m9 e on nn o e a 2 d1d i 0 e c a 3 t1u r1 n i d e c a 4 t1d e2 o td re a c a 5 p2E e0 i nc to a s a 6 h1h e/e x2 m a i 7 h3S e/e p2 s tq a u i 8 o c t a Table 2.3 Common Roots for Naming Compounds ERERloloeoeomt mt ee nn t t aaiirroossdd eei nn n ie c bbmmrraaoonnmm ggiaannn e e s e ccnnaaiirrttbb rr oo n g e n ccoohhxx lly oog rr e in n e ccpp hhhh rroo ooss mm pp ihh uo m r u s ffss llee uull ooee rr nn ii nu e m hhss yyuu ddll rr ff ou gr o er n s u l f u r Examples: FNFN oaoa rmrm me me uulla a CcCc O aOar r2 bboonn mdoinooxxiidde e NnNn O iOit t2 rrooggeenn mdoinooxxiidde e NdNdii22 O nOni i3 ttrrooggee nn mtor ni oo xx ii dd e e NdNd ii22 OOnn i i45 tt rr oo gg ee nn tp ee tn rt oo xx ii dd e e SsSsOuOu l l23 ff uu rr dt ir oi xo ix di e d e AaNdsri2 FsCn eli5 n t4 ir co g pe en n tt ae ft lr ua oc rh il do e r i d e SSCCiiCaOllr i b24 co on n t de it or xa ic dh e l o r i d e PPBBChrrloFo s m55 pi hn oe r up se n pt ea nf tl au co hr li od re i d e Note that when prefixes ending in o- or a- (like mono- and tetra-) precede a name that begins with a vowel such as oxide, the o or a at the end of the prefix is deleted to make the combination of prefix and name easier to pronounce. This pattern holds for all binary molecular compounds. The order in which the elements are named and given in formulas corresponds to the relative positions of the elements in the periodic table: the element with the lower group number (that is, to the left of the other) appears first in the name and formula. When both elements are in the same column--for example, sulfur and oxygen--then the name of the element with the higher atomic number (that is, lower in the column) appears first. Hydrogen requires special consideration because it may appear first or second in the formula and name of a compound. With elements from Groups 1 and 17, hydrogen forms diatomic molecules names according to the guidelines. With elements from Groups 12 and 16, hydrogen forms compounds containing two atoms. Except for oxygen, there is only one commonly occurring binary compounds for each element, so the prefix di- is omitted. Oxygen forms two binary compounds with hydrogen. One is water, HO, the other is hydrogen peroxide, HO. 222 The binary compounds of hydrogen with elements from Group 13 through 15 have unsystematic names, some of them are listed below. Carbon, boron and silicon form many different binary compounds with hydrogen; only the simplest is listed. Unsystematic names: NH: ammonia (nitrogen hydride) 3 PH: phosphine (phosphorus hydride) 3 AsH: arsine (arsenic hydride) 3 BH: diborane 26 SiH: silane 4 CH: methane 4 COCl: phosgene (carbonyl chloride) 2 2. Naming Binary Ionic Compounds A binary ionic compound consists of a positively charged cation formed by a metallic element and a negatively charged anion formed by a nonmetal. The names of binary ionic compounds begin with the name of the cation, which is simply the name of the parent element. This is followed by the name of the anion, which is the name of the element, except that the last syllable of that element's name is replaced with -ide. Prefixes are not used in the names of salts of representative elements because the metal ions in the main groups (group 1, 2, and aluminum in group 13) typically make only one cation. For example, magnesium (group 2) forms only a 2+ cation. Correspondingly the nonmetallic halogens (group 17) as anions have a charge of 1-; nonmetallic anions from group 16 are 2-, and those from group 15 are 3-. Ionic compounds are electrically neutral, so the negative and positive charges of the ions in an ionic compound must balance. Examples: FNFN oaoa rmrm me me uu ll a a NsKpaoI oCdtl ia us ms i cu hm l oi ro id di e d e NSMmaogaF dFg i n2 eu sm i fu lm u of rl iu od e r i d e BbNsaaaoCrd2 lS ii uu2 mm cs hu ll of ri id de e KpAa oll2 O tu2 aOm s i3 sn iu um m o ox xi id de e Some metallic elements, including many of the transition metals in the middle of the periodic table, form cations with several different charges. For example, most of the copper found in nature is 2+present as Cu; however, some copper compounds +contain Cu. Thus the name copper chloride could apply to CuCl or CuCl. Systematic names are 2 needed to distinguish between the two compounds. One system uses a Roman numeral that defines the charge on the cation after the word copper in the name of the compound. Thus copper(II) chloride 2+represents the chloride of Cu, which is CuCl. The 2 formula of copper(I) chloride is CuCl. Chemists have for many years also used different names to identify cations of the same element with different charges. +2+Cu compounds are called cuprous, and Cu compounds are called cupric. Similarly, the typical 2+3+ions of iron,,Fe and Fe,,are called ferrous and ferric, respectively. Table 2.4 lists the common cations with more than one charge. Note that, the name of the ion with the lower charge ends in -ous and the name of the one with the higher charge ends in -ic. You must determine the charged state based on the other element in the compound. Examples FICoUorPmmAmuCol na N aN ma e m e FifereO or nr (o Iu Is ) o ox xi id de e Fifere or2 Onr (i3 Ic I Io )x i od xe i d e Cccuou pp2 S pr eo ru (s I )s u sl uf li fd ie d e CccuouS pp pr ei rc ( Is Iu )l f si ud le f i d e Stsnit naF (n2 In Io )u s f lfulouroirdie d e Sts nit Fna(n4 InVi)c fflluuoorriidde e Hmm geerr2 ccB uur rr2 yo(uIs) bbrroommiidde e Hmm gee Brr rcc uu2 rr yi (c I Ib )r o bm ri od me i d e Table 2.4 Some Common Cations with More Than One Charge CCIIooUUmmPSPSmmAyAyooCmCmnn b b NoNoNNal al aammmme e e e bbBmmHiiieeg 5ssrr2+2mm cc +uuuu ttrrhhyo(i(uVc Is ) ) ccCmmHhhreeg 22rrrr ++oo cc mmuuiorruuyims (c (I II I) ) ccCifFhhrree 32rror ++oo nr mm(oiiIuuc Is m) ( I I I ) ccCifFoooree 23bbor ++aanr ll(ittIc (oI IuI Is ) ) ccCnnNoooiii 32bbcc ++aa kk lleettll(i(oIc IuIIs I) ) ccCnnNouuiii +3pp cc +prkk eoeerull(s (iIIc ) I I ) ccCppPouullt 22ppaa ++pr tt eiiirc nn(uoImuI(s ) I I ) gaAppPouullt +4lr aa +dott (uiiIsnn )ui mc ( I V ) gaAttTouuhhl 3+lraa +di ll(cll IioIuuIms ) ( I ) l ppt 关于艾滋病ppt课件精益管理ppt下载地图下载ppt可编辑假如ppt教学课件下载triz基础知识ppt tTelbhhl 23auaa ++dm ll (bllIoiiIuuc ) s m ( I I I ) lpPtsSelbitn 42auna ++dm (n (bInIiIoVc ) u) s mmMtsSaanitn 24nnna ++gg(n aaInnnVieo)c su es ( I I ) mmMttTaaniii 33nntt ++ggaa aannnnioeiuusc ms e( (I II II I) ) ttT iii 4tt +aa nn ii uc m ( I V ) 3. Naming Ionic Compounds Involving Polyatomic Ions Table 2.5 lists the names and chemical formulas of some commonly encountered ions. Most of them are polyatomic ions; that is, they consist of more than one kind of atom joined by covalent bonds. The +ammonium ion (NH) is the only common cation 4 among the polyatomic ions; all the others are anions. Polyatomic ions containing oxygen and one or more other elements are called oxoanions. Each oxoanion has a name based on the name of the element that appears first in the formula, but the ending is changed to either -ite or -ate, depending on the number of oxygen atoms in the formula. Thus, 2-2-SO is sulfate whereas SO is sulfite. The sulfate 43 ion has one more oxygen atom than the sulfite ion. The general rule, that ions with names ending in -ate have one more oxygen than those whose names end in –ite, applies to naming the oxoanions of nitrogen, --nitrate (NO ) and nitrite (NO), and to naming 32 other sets of oxoanions. Table 2.5 Names and Charges of Some Common Polyatomic Ions NSNSNS ayayay mmmmmme be be b ooo l l l aCaNaNcHmHmHeim324-+tCd o aOe ntOi -e u m aAaAaNrsrsz3-sOsOi eed4333nne --a i tt e e bBpBbBoerrr4 rOrOoOabm7432--tra -eot me a t e bBhBbHrryriCoOpOcO -mo a23--i br trbe oo mn ia tt e e cCpCcCaOelhlrrOlO3 2bco43---o h r nlaaottre e a t e cChCdChlylirlOpOc2-oo hO2-r cr72iho -tlm e oa rt ie t e cCcOcChryCyN -rOaNa -on n42mai -a tdtee e fFfFhOeeeeyH -r(r(d rCrCriNoNoc)c)xyyi6634aad --n n e ii dd ee pMmMnNenaniOrOnOt3-mgr 44 -2a aa -nn tgae at ne a t e hH y3 dO +r o n i u m nNoCpOiOxe222taOr2--r lo 42iax -tt ie e d e pPpPsShOhOuOool434332ssf ---ppa hhtaie tt e e sStSdSuOhCi2liNtO32-fo h6-2i ci -tyo ean na at te e dStS ih22 tOiO ho4322is --o u nl if ta e t e If an element forms more than two kinds of oxoanions, as chlorine and the other group 17 elements do, prefixes are used to distinguish them. The oxoanion with the largest number of oxygen atoms gets the prefix per-, and that with the smallest number of oxygen atoms may have the prefix hypo- in its name. Note that these rules do not enable you to predict the chemical formula from the name or the charge on the anion. You need to memorize the formulas, charges, and names of the common oxoanions such as those of chlorine, sulfur, and phosphorus. +Anions derived by adding H to an oxoanion are named by adding as a prefix the word hydrogen or dihydrogen, as appropriate: --HCO: hydrogen carbonate HSO : 34 hydrogen sulfate -2 -HPO: hydrogen phosphate HPO : 424 dihydrogen phosphate 4. Naming Acids An acid can be defined as a substance that yields +hydrogen ions (H) --sometimes referred to as protons--when dissolved in water. 1. Acids based on anions whose names end in –ide. Acids giving rise to the –ide anions defined as binary and pseudobinary compounds of hydrogen, e.g., hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen cyanide. Hydrogen chloride is a binary compound. When dissolved in water, this compound produces an acidic solution, which we call hydrochloric acid. In naming this and other acids based on anions whose names end in –ide, the following guidelines apply: (1) Affix the prefix hydro- to the name of the element other than hydrogen in the molecule. (2) Replace the last syllable in the name with the suffix -ic and add acid. Examples of acids based on anions whose names end in –ide are as follows: NamS e y m b o l HydrH ofluoF ric Acid HydrH ochlC oric l Acid HydrH obroB mic r Acid HydrH oiodiI c Acid HydrH ocyaC nic N Acid HydrH osulf2 uric S Acid For the compound HN the name hydrogen azide 3 is recommended in preference to hydrazoic acid. This nomenclature may also be used for less common acids, e.g., hexacyanoferrate ions correspond to hexacyanoferric acids. In such cases, however, systematic names of the type hydrogen hexacyanoferrate are preferable. 2. Acids based on oxoanions whose names end in –ate or ite. Most of the common acids are oxoacids, i.e., they contain only oxygen atoms bound to the characteristic atom. It is a long-established custom not to indicate these oxygen atoms. It is mainly for these acids that long-established names will have to be retained. If the name of the oxoanion ends in -ate, the name of the corresponding acid ends in -ic; when the name of the oxoanion ends in -ite, the name of 2-the corresponding acid ends in -ous. Thus SO is 4 the formula of sulfate, and HSO is the formula of 24-sulfuric acid. Similarly, NO is the formula of nitrite, 2 and HNO is the formula of nitrous acid. Table 2.6 2 lists the common acids that contain oxoanions. Table 2.6 Common acids that contain oxoanions NSNSayaymmmme be b oo l l AHAHcCr3esA2 tHesinO3 cOi 4 c2 A cA ic d i d AHBHro33sArBesiOnOc 3o 3 uA sc i Ad c i d CHPHaeC2 rCrlbOcOo h 34nl io cr i Ac c iA d c i d CHCHhChClllloOoOr r 32io cu s A cA ic d i d HHCHyCh2plrCoO orcmOhi 4lc o rA oc ui sd A c i d DHCHiyO2 cCaChrnN ri2 oOc m 7 iA cc i Ad c i d NHNHiNiNtOtOr r 32io cu s A cA ic d i d OHPHxh23aCoPlsO2 iOp 4c h4 o Ar ci ic d A c i d PHPHhh32oPtCsOh8p aH3 hl4oiOrc 4o uA sc i Ad c i d SHSHuu22lSlSfOfOu u 43rr io cu s A cA ic d i d Further distinction between different acids with the same characteristic element is in some cases affected by means of prefixes. This notation should not be extended beyond the cases listed below. (1) The prefix hypo- is used to denote a lower oxidation state, and may be retained in the following cases: HClO hypochlorous acid HNO hyponitrous acid 222 HPO hypophosphoric 426 acid (2) The prefix per- has been used to designate a higher oxidation state and is retained only for HClO, perchloric acid, and 4 corresponding acids of the other element in Group 17. This use of the prefix per- should not be extended to elements of other Groups. (3) The prefixes ortho- and meta- have been used to distinguish acids differing in the “content of water”. The following names are approved: HO r3 Bt Oh o3 b o r i c a c i d HO r4 St ih Oo s4 i l i c i c a c i d HO r3 PtOh o4 p h o s p h o r i c a c i d HO r5 ItOh o6 p e r i o d i c a c i d (MHeBtOa b2 )o rn i c a c i d (MHe t2 SaisOi l3 )i cn i c a c i d (MHePtOa p3 )h on s p h o r i c a c i d The prefix pyro- has been used to designate an acid formed from two molecules of an ortho-acid minus one molecule of water. Such acids can now generally be regarded as the simplest cases of isopolyacids. The trivial name pyrophosphoric acid may be retained for HPO, although diphosphoric 427 acid is preferable. The prefix peroxo-, when used in conjunction with the trivial names of acids, indicates substitution of -O- by -O-O-. Acids derived from oxoacids by replacement of oxygen by sulfur are called thioacids. Acids containing ligands other than oxygen and sulfur are generally designated according to the rules in coordination compounds. 5. Naming Bases A base can be defined as a substance that yields -hydroxide ions (OH) when dissolved in water. Bases are named like other ionic compounds: the positively charged cation is named first, followed by the polyatomic ion. Examples: NaOH sodium hydroxide KOH potassium hydroxide Ba(OH) barium hydroxide 2 Mg(OH) magnesium hydroxide 2 6. Naming Hydrates Many ionic compounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached to each formula unit are called hydrates. In the solid, these water molecules (also called "waters of hydration") are part of the structure of the compound. The ionic compound (without the waters of hydration) is named first using the rules for naming ionic compounds. Greek prefixes are attached to the word "hydrate" to indicate the number of water molecules per formula unit for the compound. When the chemical formula for a hydrated ionic compound is written, the formula for the ionic compound is separated from the waters of hydration by a centered dot. Examples: Cuc SOo •5p4 Hp2 O er (I I) s ul fa te p e nt a h y d ra te CacSOal•2ci4 Hu2 O m s ul fa te di h y d ra te CacSOal•1/ci4 2HuO m 2 s ul fa te h e m ih y d ra te FeirClo3 •6nH(I2 O II ) c hl o ri d e h e x a h y d ra te LiliCl th•Hiu2 O m c hl o ri d e m o n o h y d ra te 7. Naming Coordination Complexes Coordination complexes are a special class of compound consisting of central metal ions surrounded with groups of covalently bonded atoms, called ligands. Metal ions are classified by the number of bonds to ligands they form, called the coordination number. Ligands bidentate, etc. for one, two, etc. bonds. Multiply-bound ligands are called polydentates, or chelates. Complexes are classified by their geometries: linear, square planar, tetrahedral, octahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, etc. Isomers are distinguished by cis- and trans- prefixes, signifying ligand bonding at adjacent and opposite coordination metal sites, respectively. The name of the metal is preceded by the names of the ligands in alphabetical order using Greek prefixes (di, tri, tetra, penta, etc) to indicate multiple monodentate ligands of the same type, and Sanskrit prefixes (bis, tris, tetrakis, pentakis, etc) to indicate multiple polyentate ligands. Cationic (positive charged) ligands have ium suffixes, anionic (negative charged) ligands have o suffixes, and neutral ligands unchanged with some notable exceptions for such as aqua for water, ammine for ammonia, carbonyl for carbon monoxide and nitrosyl for nitrogen monoxide. Complexes may have positive, negative or neutral net charge, depending on the sum of the charges of the metal ions and ligands (which may be positive, negative or neutral themselves). Negative complex ions are given the suffix ate. Coordination compounds containing ionic parts consist of complex ions or inorganic ions; they are named like binary inorganic compounds, with the cationic parts preceding the anionic parts. Complex naming rules are straightforward and may be organized into the following naming algorithm: Procedure: (1) Identify the complex ions given in square brackets in the formula. Name cations before anions, separated with a space. Append the suffix ate to complex anions. (2) For each complex, name the ligands before the metal ions. (i) Identify the ligands as inorganic and organic molecules. Certain parenthesized abbreviations are used to represent long names, such as en for bidentate ethylenediamine (HNCHCHNH), edta for tetradentate 2222 ethylenendiaminetetraacetato 4?((CH)(N(CHCO)))), and ox for 222222-bidentate oxalato ((COO) ). 2 (ii) Give cationic (positive charged) ligands ium suffixes, anionic (negative charged) ligands o suffixes, and leave neutral ligands unchanged, except for certain common substances such as aqua for water, ammine for ammonia, carbonyl for carbon monoxide and nitrosyl for nitrogen monoxide. (iii) List the ligands in alphabetical order using Greek prefixes (di, tri, tetra,penta, etc) to indicate multiple monodentate ligands of the same type, and Sanskrit prefixes (bis, tris, tetrakis, pentakis, etc) to indicate multiple polyentate ligands. (3) For each complex, append the name of the metal ion to the list of ligands to which it is attached. (i) Use Latin names for the metal ions of anionic complexes. (ii) Determine the charge on the metal ion by subtracting the sum of the ionic ligand charges from the total charge on the complex. (iii) Append the charge on each metal ion to its name using parenthesized Roman numerals. Example: Name the complex compound [Co(en)Br]Cl. 22 (1) There is one bracketed complex ion. It is named before the inorganic chloride ion. (2) The ligands in the complex cation are en, which stands for the complicated neutral organic ethylenediamine, and inorganic ?negative Br, named bromo. Using a Sanskrit prefix and retaining the parentheses for the abbreviated ligand, the ligand portion is named bis(ethylenediamine)dibromo. (3) The complex has charge +1, balancing the charge on the chloride ion. Since en has zero charge and each bromo has ?1 charge, the charge on the cobalt metal ion = + 1 - (-2) = + 3. The total name is bis(ethylenediamine)dibromocobalt(III) chloride.