新编简明英语语言学教程 何兆熊 第四章笔记和习题

新编简明英语语言学教程 何兆熊 第四章笔记和习题 Chapter 4 Syntax What is syntax? ,----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. , The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally means “arrangement” or “setting out together”. , Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence. , Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences. , What is a sentence? , Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules. A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical. , Knowledge of sentence structure , Structural ambiguity , Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more than one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would come yesterday can be interpreted in different ways. , Word order , Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For example, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom loves Mary or Mary loves Tom. , Grammatical relations , Native speakers know what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough and We don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to different words in the two sentences. , Recursion , The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For example, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you are happy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy. , Sentence relatedness , Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related. , Syntactic categories , A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences: , The child found the knife. , A policeman found the knife. , The man who just left here found the knife. , He found the knife. , All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject. The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object. , Traditional grammar , In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech. , Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, … , Structural grammar , Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another. , Transformational-generative (TG) grammar , Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers. 1 , Adequacy of observation , Adequacy of description , Adequacy of explanation , Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules – phrase structure rules and transformation rules – which are followed by speakers of the language. , TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences. , TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking. , Systematic-functional grammar , Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar , M. A. K. Halliday , Language is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices. , Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms. , The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and meaning are realized through forms. , The three meta-functions of language , Ideational function , Interpersonal function , Textual function Categories ,Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech) Word-level categories ,Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep. ,Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj. The criteria on which categories are determined ,Meaning ,Inflection ,Distribution ,Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. Phrase categories and their structures ,Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). ,The structure: specifier + head + complement ,Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed ,Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads ,Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules ,The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: ,NP , (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. ,VP , (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. ,AP , (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to ,PP , (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station. The XP rule Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P. 2 Coordination rule ,Coordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc. ----Coordination has four important properties: ,no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; ,a category at any level can be coordinated; ,the categories must be of the same type; ,the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. Phrase elements ,Specifier ,Head ,Complement Specifiers ,---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP. Complements ,---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl; There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…; a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent. I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause. Modifiers ,---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads. Sentences (the S rule) ,S , NP VP , S , NP infl VP , Many linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl’) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement. Infl realized by a tense label Infl realized by an auxiliary Transformations ,Auxiliary movement (inversion) ,Do insertion ,Deep structure & surface structure ,Wh-movement ,Move α and constraints on transformations Auxiliary movement (inversion) ,Inversion, Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. ,Inversion (revised), Move Infl to C. , Auxiliary movement (inversion) , Do insertion ,Do insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Deep structure & surface structure ,Consider the following pair of sentences: 3 John is easy to please. John is eager to please. ,Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. ,Consider one more sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous. ,It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous. ,Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. ,Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written. D-structure and S-structure Two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure: One that exists before movement takes place The other that occurs after movement takes place Formal linguistic exploration: D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexicon Sentence at the level of D-structure The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from D-structure level to S-structure level Transformational-generative line of analysis The organization of the syntactic component Wh-movement ,Consider the derivation of the following sentences: What languages can you speak? What can you talk about? ,These sentences may originate as: You can speak what languages. You can talk about what. ,Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. What language can you speak ? What can you talk about ? ,Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised) Move α and constraints on transformations ,Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. ,No element may be removed from a coordinate structure. Chapter 4:Syntax I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words. 4 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. 4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence. 5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. 7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category. 8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for. 9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. 11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge. 12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional. 13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure. 14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate. 18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________. 19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. 20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause. 21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added. 22. XP can be written as (specifier) X (complement), X is called the_____. 23. In a tree diagram, _____is the root of tree. 24. The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed________. III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. A. right B. wrong C. grammatical D. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A. coordinator B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties. A. recursive B. grammatical C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________. A. how words and phrases form sentences. B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words C. how people produce and recognize possible sentences D. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. A. transformational rules B. generative rules C. phrase structure rules D. x-bar theory 5 30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number. A. large B. small C. finite D. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences. A. lexical B. morphological C. linguistic D. combinational 34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structure IV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules 42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. VI. Given examples for word classes by using the words in the following sentence. Her dog always sleeps under the old tree. VII. Construct a sentence that has the following sentences. S,Det, A, N, V, P, Det, N VIII. For each of the following sentences, supply three distinct surface structure sentences which may be regarded as derived from them: a. I told him to stop the car. b. He took his coat off. IX. Draw tree diagrams for each of the following entences. 1. Mary advised John to see the dentist. 2. Mary promised John to see the dentist. 3. A clever magician fooled the audience. 4. The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind. 5. They knew that the senator would win the election. 6. The mouse ran up the rock. 7. The mouse ate up the cheese. 8. John gave Mary the book. 9. John gave the book to Mary. 10. John went to the supermarket. 11. The man who came to see me last night is my brother. 12. The candle on the desk blows in the wind. 13. She passed him the hammer and saw through the window. (2 tree diagrams) 14. The boy saw the girl in the car. (2 tree diagrams) 15. Flying planes can be dangerous. (2 tree diagrams) 16. Old men and women were more careful. (2 tree diagrams) 6 17. The man in the room helps me every day. 18. John is easy to please. 19. John is eager to please. Suggested answers to supplementary exercises IV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom . 40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. 41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type. 42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure. V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are the basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics. 45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram: S NP VP Det N Vt NP Det N The boy likes the music. 7 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A) The man beat the child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement. 8