英研文化讲义最新

英语国家文化复习导读 Culture: Geography; History; Politics; Literature; Language; Religion; Economics; Holidays and Sports; （英国） Vikings（北欧海盗） (1) A Viking refers to any of Scandinavian people who attacked and raided, and sometimes settled along, the coasts of northern and western Europe from the 8th to the 10th centuries. (2) Vikings invaded and plundered British Isles after Anglo-Saxon invasion. The National Eisteddfod（威尔士每年举行的诗歌演赛会） (1) Eisteddfod is the Welsh word for “sitting”. The National Eisteddfod is the most famous festival of music and verse in Wales. (2) It takes place each August and lasts for about a week. (3) The highlight of the Eisteddfod is a competition for the best epic poem about Wales written and read in Welsh. (4) The winner is crowned Bard, considered the supreme honor in Wales. The Provisional IRA（临时爱尔兰共和军） (1) IRA, the Irish Republican Army, is a nationalist organization dedicated to the unification of Ireland. (2) It was organized in 1919. (3) The IRA refused to accept a separate Northern Ireland under British rule. (4) In 1969 it split into an “official” majority, which disclaimed violence, and a terrorist “provisional” wing, whose attacks on British troops in Northern Ireland, random bombings, and other acts of terror in England kept tensions high. Alfred the Great（阿尔弗雷德大帝） He was a fine Saxon king who successfully defeated the invading Danes. (2) King Arthur (1) He was the king of England in the sixth century. (2) Little was known about him, except that he was associated with Cornwall and is the central figure of many legends about him and his Knights of the Round Table. The Crusades（十字军东征） (1) The Crusades refer to a series of wars in the Middle Ages in which armies from all over Europe tried to snatch the “Holy Land” (i.e. Palestine, where Jesus Christ once lived) from the “Infidels” (i.e. the Muslims). (2) The most famous of the English Crusaders was the Norman king, Richard Lion-Heart. (3) The Crusaders promoted the cultural exchanges between the West and the East. Richard Lion-Heart (1) He was a Norman king in the Middle Ages. (2) He was also the most famous of the English Crusaders at that time. (3) Many stories have been told about him and his enemy Saladin. The Norman Conquest (1) In AD 1066, William Conqueror of Normandy landed his army in England. (2) At the battle of Hasting he defeated the Saxon king Harold the great and conquered England. (3) French was made the official language and the feudal system was firmly established in England. The Magna Carta (1) The Magna Carta (or Great Charter) was a document signed in 1215 by King John under compulsion by the powerful barons. (2) The purpose of the Charter was to make king John to recognize the rights of the barons. (3) The Magna Carta is now in the British Museum, London. The Hundred Years’ War (1) A war between England and France which lasted, on and off, for a hundred years from 1337 to 1453. (2) The causes were partly territorial and partly economic. (3) It was fought entirely in France, and the whole of France very nearly fell into English hands in the famous battles of Crecy and Agincourt. (4) Eventually, partly through the inspiration of the brave girl Joan of Arc, and partly through the effective use of guns, the French drove the English from their land for good. The war made Normans realize their national identity. Joan of Arc (1) She was a French saint and national heroine. (2) During the Hundred Years’ War, her bravery and inspiration provided spirit and morale for French armies. (3) Later she was captured by the British and burned at the stake. The Wars of the Roses (1) It is the name given to the struggle (1455-1485) for the throne of England between two branches of the English royal family: (2) the houses of Lancaster, whose badge was a red rose and York, whose badge was a white rose. (3) the wars weakened both the nobility and the monarch. Christianity (1) It refers to all doctrines and religious groups based on the teachings of Jesus Christ. It was founded in the 1st century in Palestine. (2) Jesus Christ is accepted by Christians as the son of God, and his teaching is contained in the Bible, the holy book of Christianity. (3) In Europe, Christianity is divided into three major groups, Roman Catholic Church, Protestant Church and Orthodox Eastern Church. Jesus Christ (1) Jesus Christ was a Jew who lived in Palestine 2000 years ago and is accepted by Christians as the son of God. (2) He was born to virgin named Mary.(3) His teaching was based on love: love of God, and love of our neighbor. (4) His teaching and accounts of his life are contained in the New Testament of the Bible. The Bible (1) The Bible is the holy book of Christianity. It consists of two testaments. (2) The Old Testament contains the Jewish writings before the coming of Christ. (3) The much shorter New Testament contains four accounts (“gospel”) of the life of Christ, followed by the writings of the early Christians, of whom St Paul was the greatest. The Trinity (1) The Trinity in Christianity is the union of God, Jesus Christ and Holy Spirit. (2) They are three aspects of the same one God. The Resurrection In the Bible or Christian belief, it refers to the rising of Jesus Christ from death to life. The Ascension In the Bible, it refers to the belief in Christianity that Christ ascended into Heaven after his death. The Protestant Reformation (1) It was a religious reform movement that started in 1517, when the German monk Martin Luther posted for debate a series of theses that challenged Roman Catholic teaching and authority. (2) Those who separated themselves from Catholic Church were called Protestants. (3) Most of the Protestants stress the Bible as the source and their norm of teaching instead of the Pope as the source of authority. (4) In Britain, Protestantism gradually became the dominant faith in the Elizabethan age. The Puritans (1) The Puritans were originally an extreme Protestant sect, determined to “purify” the English Church of all the corruption and ceremonial pomp of the Roman Church of the 16th and 17th centuries. (2) The Puritans are strict in morals and religion, and look upon fun and pleasure as sinful. They cling to a very simple way of life. They are called kill-joys. Bloody Mary (1) It was the nickname given to Mary I, Henry VIII’ s elder daughter. (2) She was a devout Catholic, and had so many Protestants burnt to death that she is remembered less by her official title Mary I than by her nickname Bloody Mary. (3) She was succeeded by Elizabeth I. The “Gunpowder Plot” (1) It refers to the most famous of a number of Catholic conspiracies in English history which occurred in the reign of James I. (2) It was the plot to blow up the King and Parliament, in which a man called Guy Fawkes was caught in the cellars of the House of Commons in the very act of preparing the explosives. (3) “Guy Fawkes’ Night” is still celebrated on November 5th each year. The English Civil War (1) It refers to one of the most important events in the whole of British history. (2) It is a bitter power struggle (1642-1648) between the monarchy and Parliament. (3) The victory of the Parliament led to the execution (1649) of Charles I and the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, and (4) the country became for more than ten years a sort of republic founded by Oliver Cromwell. King Charles I (1) He was an English king in the seventeenth century. He believed that he had a “Divine Right” to govern. (2) For a time, Charles I actually ruled without Parliament, and levied taxes without Parliament’s approval. (3) This aroused the opposition of the “Roundheads”, and the great Civil War broke out, in which he was defeated, tried as a traitor to his country, and condemned to death. Oliver Cromwell (1) Oliver Cromwell was the Roundhead leader during the English Civil War. (2) He defeated King Charles I and condemned him to death. (3) The monarchy was overthrown, and the country became for more than ten years a republic. The Glorious Revolution (1) It refers to the event of 1688 in the English Revolution, when the Catholic king James II was forced to flee with his baby son to France. (2) The throne was offered to his Protestant daughter and her husband Dutch king William. (3) The bill of Rights was passed by Parliament to restrict the power of the Monarchy. (4) This was the beginning of the Constitutional Monarchy in Britain. The Elizabethan age (1) It refers to the period during the reign of Elizabeth I in British history. (2) It was an age of real literary achievement, especially that of Shakespeare, and (3) it was an age of adventure on the sea. The Industrial Revolution (1) It refers to the period in British history from 1780 to 1830. (2) It refers to the mechanization of industry and consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. (3) Great changes took place with the invention of the steam engine. (4) More factories and big towns were built. (5) It made Britain stronger and richer, and at the same time it also created an entirely new social class, the industrial workers. (6) Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”. (7) Ten factors were responsible for Britain’s being the first country to industrialize: a. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade; b. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industrialization; c. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy; d. It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products; e. Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources; f. British engineers had sound training as craftsman; g. The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems; h. Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic” help; j. England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers; k. The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labor for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry. Adam Smith wrote Wealth of Nations《国富论》in 1776 that advocates the doctrine of laissez faire（政府不干预经济原则）; Thomas Malthus formulated his “principle of population” in 1798. The Enclosure（圈地运动）as a movement started in England in the 14th and 15th centuries and continued in 18th century in which the feudal aristocracy enclosed large pieces of land with fences and turned arable land into pastures for raising sheep, which was much profitable. As a result of the Enclosure, thousands of peasants lost their land and became landless men. In order to make a living, they had to pour into cities and became the “reserved army of wage earners”, who constituted a major source of free labor for the later Industrial Revolution. It was a part of British Original Accumulation（原始积累）. The Chartist Movement（宪章运动）lasted from 1836 to 1848. The movement, though failed, was the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The Atlantic Charter: agreed to by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill inAugust1942 at their first wartime meeting, committed their countries to a peace recognizing the right of self-determination. The Seven Years' War： The Seven Years' War, 1756-63, was the first global war. The protagonists were Britain, Prussia and Hanover against France, Austria, Sweden, Saxony, Russia and eventually Spain. Britain declined to commit its main forces on the continent, where it depended on the Prussians and German mercenaries to defend George II's Electorate of Hanover. Britain's war aims were to destroy the French navy and merchant fleet, seize its colonies, and eliminate France as a commercial rival. France found itself committed to fighting in Europe to defend Austria, which could do nothing to aid France overseas. In North America, hostilities between American and Canadian colonists had erupted two years previously. The war led to the fall of New France. The Victorian age (1) It refers to the monarch of Britain under the great Queen Victoria from 1837 to 1901, the longest reign in British history. (2) the Victorian age was an age of national development and national optimism. (3) The Victorians were very religious and conservative in family life. (4) It was also, in its later stages, an age of imperialism. Charles Darwin (1) The famous British scientist who wrote the important book “The Origin of Species”. (2) His theory of evolution caused violent reaction of the Victorians against the book, and furious debates were held in private and in public. (3) Darwin’s theory contributed to the decay of Victorianism. Constitutional Monarchy (1) The Constitutional Monarchy is one in which the Monarch respects the Constitution. (2) In law, the monarch is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature: head of the judiciary; commander-in-chief of all the armed forces and head of the Church of England. In practice, the real power of monarchy has gradually been reduced and today the Queen acts solely on the advice of her ministers. (3) In the Glorious Revolution, William and Mary became the joint rulers of Britain, and the Constitutional Monarchy began. (4) The Bill of Rights that was passed in 1689 restricted the power of the monarchy. Common Laws （1）It is one of the main components of the British Constitution. (2) It refers to the Bills which have been passed by courts. The Bill of Rights in 1689 (1) It was the Bill passed by the Parliament in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution. (2) It laid down a number of things that the future monarchs could not do. (3) It marked the beginning of the British Constitutional Monarchy. British Parliament (1) It includes three elements: the Crown, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. (2) It is the supreme law-making authority in Britain. (3) The real center of parliamentary power is in the House of Commons. (4) Other functions include: to control and criticize the executive government; to control the raising and the spending of money. (5) The Prime Minister selects his most important colleagues and forms the Cabinet. The House of Lords It is an important part of Parliament. (2) Its members are peers, most of whom are hereditary. (3) Its powers have been severely reduced by the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949. (4) It must pass all financial legislation sent to it from the House of Commons, and can delay other Bills for only one year. (5) It has a special judicial function. (6) The head of the House of Lords is the Lord Chancellor, who is also head of the British supreme court. The House of Commons (1) It consists of 635 elected Members of Parliament. (2) MPs have a number of privileges, e.g. the freedom of speech in Parliament. (3) It is by far the most powerful and important element in Parliament, therefore plays the key role in the activities of Parliament as a whole. (4) The Speaker presides over the meeting in the House of Commons and sees that parliamentary procedure is followed. The Shadow Cabinet (also called the Shadow Front Bench) is a senior group of opposition spokespeople in the Westminster system of government who together under the leadership of the Leader of the Opposition (or the leader of other smaller opposition parties) form an alternative cabinet to the government's, whose members shadow or mark each individual member of the government. Members of a shadow cabinet are often but not always appointed to a Cabinet post if and when their party gets into government. It is the Shadow Cabinet's responsibility to pass criticism on the current government and its respective legislation, as well as offering alternative policies. （美国） Grand Canyon The Grand Canyon in north-western Arizona is one of nature’s most impressive sights. The Canyon carved by the Colorado River is 1.5 kilometers deep, 320 kilometers long and as much as 29 kilometers wide in some places. The bright colors of the canyon walls are a wonderful sight. The Pilgrims (‘1620年的欧洲殖民者’) (1) In England, there had been a group of people called Puritans who had broken away from the Church of England and formed their own churches. Later they fled to Holland to escape the persecution in their native land. (2) Several years passed when they were again threatened by religious suppression, they thought of moving, and this time to America. (3) They began to call themselves Pilgrims because of their wanderings in search of religious freedom and to maintain their English identity. (4) In 1620, they crossed the Atlantic in the ship Mayflower and settled at Plymouth, Massachusetts. Mayflower Compact（五月花契约） (1) In order to survive, the Pilgrims on the Mayflower needed a means of establishing and enforcing proper rules of conduct. Also they wanted to protect themselves from rebels within their own ranks, they signed the Mayflower Compact. (2) It was the first formal agreement for self-government in America. (3) It was signed on the Mayflower, choosing the first governor. “Boston Tea Party” （‘波士顿倾茶事件’） (1) In the years following the French and Indian War, British government enforced several acts that were bitterly opposed by colonists. (2) In order to ease tensions, British government removed all the new taxes except that on tea. (3) In 1773, a group of patriots responded to the tea tax by staging the Boston Tea Party: Disguised as Indians, they boarded British merchant ships and tossed 342 crates of tea into Boston harbor. (4) British parliament then passed the “Intolerable Acts”, and in response to this the First Continental Congress was held in September 1774. The Second Continental Congress (‘第二届大陆会议’) The Second Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, very soon after the “Battle of Lexington”. It was this Congress that was to guide the American people through their long way for independence. The delegates agreed to support the war. The Congress decided to organize a Continental Army and Navy under the command of George Washington, a Virginian militia commander. It also appointed a committee to draft a formal declaration. Thomas Jefferson of Virginia drafted the Declaration of Independence. On July 4, 1776 the Congress adopted the declaration. Paul Revere (保罗.里维尔)(美国独立战争时期的爱国者) Paul Revere was a Boston patriot who got news that the British were setting out to attack the militiamen so he rode into the countryside to arouse the people. Christopher Columbus He was an Italian navigator, with the financial help of the Spanish queen, led his man to sail across the Vast ocean in 1492 and reached some small islands in the now West Indies. He didn't know he had discovered a New Continent until his death. Later, another navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, proved that the land was not India in Asia, but a new continent. Therefore the land was named America after him. The Emancipation Proclamation (‘解放黑人奴隶宣言’) During the Civil wars Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to get more support for the Union at home and abroad. It granted freedom to all slaves. The abolitionists (‘废奴主义者’) The abolitionists were those who advocated the abolishment of the slave system. The Gettysburg Address (‘葛底斯堡演说’) The Gettysburg Address refers to the short speech Preside