欧洲文化6TheMiddleAges

TheMiddleAgesIII.LearningandScience1.Charlemagne(查理曼大帝)andCarolingianRenaissance(卡洛林复兴)◆Charlemagne(742-814,世称CharlestheGreat或CharlesI,768-814为法兰克王,800-814为西罗马帝国皇帝),kingoftheFranksandHolyRomanEmperor;conqueroroftheLombardsandSaxons.◆Charlemagnewasperhapsthemostimportantfigureoftheearlymedievalperiod.Hekepthisorderthroughouthisrealm,andencouragedinterestsintheChristianreligionandancientlearning.◆Charlemagne,amongotherthingshedid,encouragedlearningbysettingupmonasteryschools,givingsupporttoscholarsandsettingscribestoworkcopyingvariousancientbooks.Asaresult,fewoftheancientworksthathadsurviveduntilthattimewereeverlost.◆TheresultofCharlemagne'seffortsisusuallycalledthe“CarolingianRenaissance”,whichisderivedfromhisLatinname“Carolus”.ThemostinterestingfacetofthisratherminorrenaissanceisthespectacleofFrankishorGermanicstatereachingouttoassimilatetherichesoftheRomanClassicalandtheChristianHebraicculture.2.AlfredtheGreatandWessexCenteroflearningAlfredtheGreat(849-899),ruleroftheAnglo-SaxonkingdomofWessex,contributedgreatlytothemedievalEuropeanculture.HeworriedaboutthedisappearanceoflearningandmadeWessextheAnglo-Saxonculturalcenterbyintroducingteachersandscholars,foundingnewmonasteries,andpromotingtranslationintothevernacular(本地语)fromLatinworks.HealsoinspiredthecompilationoftheAnglo-SaxonChronicles.3.St.ThomasAquinasandScholasticism(阿奎那与经验哲学St.ThomasAquinas(1225-1274)wasanItalianphilosopherandtheologian,thesupremefigureinscholasticism,themedievalphilosophicalefforttoharmonizefaithandreason.InhisSummaContraGentiles(《哲学大全》)hedistinguishesbetweentruthdiscerned(看清楚)byhumanreasonandthatimparted(告知)byrevelationandholdsthatthetwokindsoftrutharecomplementary,fortheybothspringfromthesamesource,thatis,fromGod.HisSummaTheologiae(《神学集成》)formsanenormoussystemandsumsupalltheknowledgeofmedievaltheology.4.RogerBaconandExperimentalScience(实用主义)Science,asweunderstandtheterm,madelittleprogressduringtheMiddleAges.Whilesuperstitionwaswidespread,falsesciencesbasedonthepracticeof“magic”werepopularsuchasastrology(占星术)andalchemy(炼金术).Realscienceprogressdidnotbeginuntilthe12thand13thcenturies.RogerBacon(1220-1292),amonk,wasoneoftheearliestadvocatesofscientificresearch.Hecalledforcarefulobservationandexperimentation,whosewokswastheOpusmaius,anencyclopediaofthesciencesofhistime.IV.Literature1.NationalEpics◆TheepicwastheproductoftheHeroicAge.Itwasanimportantandmostlyusedforminancientliterature.“NationalEpic”referstotheepicwritteninvernacularlanguages—thatis,thelanguagesofvariousnationalstatesthatcameintobeingintheMiddleAges.LiteraryworkswerenolongerwritteninLatin.ItwasthestartingpointofagradualtransitionofEuropeanliteraturefromLatinculturetoaculturethatwasthecombinationofavarietyofnationalcharacteristics.1.1Beowulf(《贝奥武弗》700-750A.D.)BeowulfisanAnglo-Saxonepic,inalliterative(头韵)verse,originatingfromthecollectiveeffortsoforalliterature.ThestoryissetinDenmarkorSwedenandtellshowthehero,Beowulf,defeatsthemonsterGrendelandGrendel'smother,aseamonster,buteventuallyreceiveshisowndeathinfightingwithafiredragon.1.2SongofRoland(12thcentury)SongofRolandisthemostwell-knownofagroupofFrenchepicknownasLaChansondeGestes.IttellshowRoland,oneofCharlemagne'swarriors,fightsinSpainanddiesdefendingapassinthePyrenees.2.DanteAlighieri(1265-1321)andTheDivineComedyDanteAlighieriwasthegreatestpoetofItalyandalsoaprosewriter,literarytheorist,moralphilosopheraswellaspoliticalthinker.Hismasterpiece,TheDivineComedy,isoneofthelandmarksofworldliterature.ThepoemwhileitselfisthegreatestChristianpoemwithaprofoundvisionofthemedievalChristianworld,expresseshumanisticideaswhichforeshadowedthespiritofRenaissance.?DantewrotehismasterpieceinItalianratherthaninLatin,whichinfluenceddecisivelytheevolutionofEuropeanliteratureawayfromitsoriginsinLatinculturetoanewvariedexpression.3.GeoffreyChaucer(1340-1400)andTheCanterburyTalesChaucerwasanEnglishpoet,afull-blownflowerofEnglishmedievalliterature.TheCanterburyTaleswerehismostpopularworkfortheirpowerofobservation,piercingirony,senseofhumorandwarmhumanity.Thebook,whichisincompletetoChaucer'splan,contains24talestoldbyagroupofpilgrimsontheirjourneytoCanterbury.MostofthetalesarewritteninversewhichreflectsChaucer'sinnovationbyintroducingintothenativealliterativeversetheFrenchandItalianstyles.ChauceristhusregardedasthefirstshortstorytellerandthefirstmodernpoetinEnglishliterature.ChaucerwritesindialectusedbyLondoners,andbythesheerweightandpopularityofhiswritingshesetsitfirmlyonthewaytomodernEnglish.V.ArtandArchitecture1.Romanesque(罗马风格)Thebuildings,sculpture,anddecorativeartscreatedinEurope,duringthe11thand12thcenturiesexhibitastylethat,inspiteofnationalandregionalvariations,hasnumerouscommoncharacteristics.Thishasledthescholarstocointheterm“Romanesque”,whichmeans“intheRomanmanner”.Thenamewasnotveryappropriate,forRomanartwasonlyoneofthemanysourcesthathelpedtoformthisfirsttrulystyleoftheMiddleAges.Romanesqueartisprominentlyreligious.Architectureischaracterizedbymassiveness,solidity,andmonumentalitywithanoverallblockyappearance.Sculptureandpainting,primarilyinartsoftenareimbuedwithsymbolismandallegory.Theyarenotbasedonnaturalformsbutusedistortionsforexpressiveimpact.Romanesquearereflectsmanyfacetsofthesocietyofthetime.TheRomanesquechurchesarestonetestamentswhichtellusthedevelopmentoftheearlyMiddleAgeswasoverandanorderedfeudalsocietywasemerging,althoughthefeelingofuncertaintyandinsecuritywasstillthere.2.GothicTheGothicstylestartedinFranceandquicklyspreadthroughallpartsofwesternEurope.Itflourishedandlastedfromthemid-12thtotheendof15thcenturyand,insomeareas,intothe16th.Morechurcheswerebuiltinthismannerthaninanyotherstyleinhistory.TheGothicwasanoutgrowthoftheRomanesque,butitwasgivendirectionbyadifferentaestheticandphilosophicalspiritandreflectedamuchmoreorderedfeudalsocietywithfullconfidence.Gothiccathedralssoaredhigh,theirwindows,archesandtowersreachingheavenward,flingingtheirpassionagainstthesky.TheyweredecoratedwithbeautifulstainedglasswindowsandsculpturesmorelifelikethananysinceancientRome.NOTRE-Dame(巴黎圣母院)TheDuomo（米兰大教堂）K?lnerDom（科隆大教堂）?WestminsterAbbey(西敏寺)